Virtual reality

"Virtuality" redirects here. For other uses, see Virtuality (disambiguation).
U.S. Navy personnel using a mock VR parachute trainer.

Virtual Reality (VR), which can be referred to as immersive multimedia or computer-simulated life, replicates an environment that simulates physical presence in places in the real world or imagined worlds. Virtual reality can recreate sensory experiences, which include virtual taste, sight, smell, sound, and touch.

Most up to date virtual reality environments are displayed either on a computer screen or with special stereoscopic displays, and some simulations include additional sensory information and emphasise real sound through speakers or headphones targeted towards VR users. Some advanced, haptic, systems now include tactile information, generally known as force feedback in medical, gaming and military applications. Furthermore, virtual reality covers remote communication environments which provide virtual presence of users with the concepts of telepresence and telexistence or a virtual artifact (VA) either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through multimodal devices such as a wired glove or omnidirectional treadmills. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world in order to create a lifelike experience—for example, in simulations for pilot or combat training—or it differs significantly from reality, such as in VR games. In practice, it is currently very difficult to create a high-fidelity virtual reality experience, because of technical limitations on processing power, image resolution, and communication bandwidth. However, VR's proponents hope that virtual reality's enabling technologies become more powerful and cost effective over time.

Virtual reality is often used to describe a wide variety of applications commonly associated with immersive, highly visual, 3D environments. The development of CAD software, graphics hardware acceleration, head-mounted displays, datagloves, and miniaturization have helped popularize the notion. In the book The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality by Michael R. Heim, seven different concepts of virtual reality are identified: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication. People often identify VR with head mounted displays and data suits.

Concept origins

World Skin (1997), Maurice Benayoun's virtual reality interactive installation

The term "artificial reality", coined by Myron Krueger, has been in use since the 1970s; however, the origin of the term "virtual reality" can be traced back to the French playwright, poet, actor, and director Antonin Artaud. In his seminal book The Theatre and Its Double (1938), Artaud described theatre as "la réalité virtuelle", a virtual reality in which, in Erik Davis's words, "characters, objects, and images take on the phantasmagoric force of alchemy's visionary internal dramas".[1] Artaud claimed that the "perpetual allusion to the materials and the principle of the theater found in almost all alchemical books should be understood as the expression of an identity [...] existing between the world in which the characters, images, and in a general way all that constitutes the virtual reality of the theater develops, and the purely fictitious and illusory world in which the symbols of alchemy are evolved".[2]

The term was also used in The Judas Mandala, a 1982 science-fiction novel by Damien Broderick, where the context of use is somewhat different from that defined above. The earliest use cited by the Oxford English Dictionary is in a 1987 article titled "Virtual reality",[3] but the article is not about VR technology. The concept of virtual reality was popularized in mass media by movies such as Brainstorm and The Lawnmower Man. The VR research boom of the 1990s was accompanied by the non-fiction book Virtual Reality (1991) by Howard Rheingold.[4] The book served to demystify the subject, making it more accessible to less technical researchers and enthusiasts.

Multimedia: from Wagner to Virtual Reality, edited by Randall Packer and Ken Jordan and first published in 2001, explores the term and its history from an avant-garde perspective. Philosophical implications of the concept of VR are discussed in books including Philip Zhai's Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality (1998) and Digital Sensations: Space, Identity and Embodiment in Virtual Reality (1999), written by Ken Hillis.

History

A 2013 virtual reality headset from Oculus VR, a company Facebook acquired in 2014 for $2 billion

Impact

There has been an increase in interest in the potential social impact of new technologies, such as virtual reality. In the book Infinite Reality: Avatars, Eternal Life, New Worlds, and the Dawn of the Virtual Revolution, Blascovich and Bailenson review the literature on the psychology and sociology behind life in virtual reality.

In addition, Mychilo S. Cline, in his book Power, Madness, and Immortality: The Future of Virtual Reality, argues that virtual reality will lead to a number of important changes in human life and activity.[18] He argues that virtual reality will be integrated into daily life and activity, and will be used in various human ways. Another such speculation has been written up on how to reach ultimate happiness via virtual reality.[19] He also argues that techniques will be developed to influence human behavior, interpersonal communication, and cognition.[20] As we spend more and more time in virtual space, there would be a gradual "migration to virtual space", resulting in important changes in economics, worldview, and culture.[21]

Use

Heritage and archaeology

The first use of a VR presentation in a heritage application was in 1994, when a museum visitor interpretation provided an interactive "walk-through" of a 3D reconstruction of Dudley Castle in England as it was in 1550. This consisted of a computer controlled laserdisc-based system designed by British based engineer Colin Johnson. The system was featured in a conference held by the British Museum in November 1994, and in the subsequent technical paper, Imaging the Past - Electronic Imaging and Computer Graphics in Museums and Archaeology.

Virtual reality enables heritage sites to be recreated extremely accurately, so that the recreations can be published in various media.[22] The original sites are often inaccessible to the public, or may even no longer exist. This technology can be used to develop virtual replicas of caves, natural environment, old towns, monuments, sculptures and archaeological elements.[23]

Education

Strides are being made in the realm of education, although much needs to be done. The possibilities of VR and education are endless and bring many advantages to pupils of all ages.

Few are creating content that may be used for educational [24] purposes, with most advances being done in the entertainment industry, but many understand and realize the future and the importance of education and VR.

Fiction

Many science fiction books and films have imagined characters being "trapped in virtual reality".

A comprehensive and specific fictional model for virtual reality was published in 1935 in the short story Pygmalion's Spectacles [5] by Stanley G. Weinbaum. A more modern work to use this idea was Daniel F. Galouye's novel Simulacron-3, which was made into a German teleplay titled Welt am Draht ("World on a Wire") in 1973. Other science fiction books have promoted the idea of virtual reality as a partial, but not total, substitution for the misery of reality, or have touted it as a method for creating virtual worlds in which one may escape from Earth.

Stanisław Lem's 1961 story "I (Profesor Corcoran)", translated in English as "Further Reminiscences of Ijon Tichy I",[25] dealt with a scientist who created a number of computer-simulated people living in a virtual world. Lem further explored the implications of what he termed "phantomatics" in his nonfictional 1964 treatise Summa Technologiae. The Piers Anthony novel Killobyte follows the story of a paralyzed cop trapped in a virtual reality game by a hacker, whom he must stop to save a fellow trapped player slowly succumbing to insulin shock.

Other popular fictional works that use the concept of virtual reality include William Gibson's Neuromancer which defined the concept of cyberspace, Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash, in which he made extensive reference to the term avatar to describe one's representation in a virtual world, and Rudy Rucker's The Hacker and the Ants, in which programmer Jerzy Rugby uses VR for robot design and testing. The Otherland series of 4 novels by Tad Williams, published from 1996 to 2001 and set in the 2070s, shows a world where the Internet has become accessible via virtual reality.

The Doctor Who serial "The Deadly Assassin", first broadcast in 1976, introduced a dream-like computer-generated reality, known as the Matrix. British BBC2 sci-fi series Red Dwarf featured a virtual reality game titled "Better Than Life", in which the main characters had spent many years connected. Saban's syndicated superhero television series VR Troopers also made use of the concept.

The popular .hack multimedia franchise is based on a virtual reality MMORPG dubbed "The World" The French animated series Code Lyoko is based on the virtual world of Lyoko and the Internet.

An anime called Sword Art Online involves the concept of virtual reality, and the possibility of dying in real life when a player dies in the game. Also, in Sword Art Online II, they pose the idea of bringing a virtual character into the real world via mobile cameras. They use this concept to allow a bedridden individual to attend public school for the first time.

Motion pictures:

In 2009, British digital radio station BBC Radio 7 broadcast Planet B, a science-fiction drama set in a virtual world. Planet B was the largest ever commission for an original drama programme.[26]

Fine arts

David Em was the first fine artist to create navigable virtual worlds in the 1970s. His early work was done on mainframes at Information International, Inc., Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and California Institute of Technology. Jeffrey Shaw explored the potential of VR in fine arts with early works like Legible City (1989), Virtual Museum (1991), and Golden Calf (1994). Canadian artist Char Davies created immersive VR art pieces Osmose (1995) and Ephémère (1998). Maurice Benayoun's work introduced metaphorical, philosophical or political content, combining VR, network, generation and intelligent agents, in works like Is God Flat? (1994), "Is the Devil Curved? (1995)"The Tunnel under the Atlantic (1995), and World Skin, a Photo Safari in the Land of War (1997). Other pioneering artists working in VR have include Luc Courchesne, Rita Addison, Knowbotic Research, Rebecca Allen, Perry Hoberman, Jacki Morie, Margaret Dolinsky and Brenda Laurel. All mentioned artists are documented in the Database of Virtual Art.

Video games

Paramount for the immersion into virtual reality are, a high frame rate (at least 95 fps) as well as a low latency. Furthermore a pixel persistence lower than 3 ms is required to not get sick when moving the head around.

The use of graphics, sound and input technology in video games can be incorporated into VR. Several Virtual Reality head mounted displays (HMD) were released for gaming during the early-mid 1990s. These included the Virtual Boy developed by Nintendo, the iGlasses developed by Virtual I-O, the Cybermaxx developed by Victormaxx and the VFX-1 developed by Forte Technologies. Other modern examples of narrow VR for gaming include the Wii Remote, the Kinect, and the PlayStation Move/PlayStation Eye, all of which track and send motion input of the players to the game console somewhat accurately. There is also a new high field of view VR headset system in development designed specifically for gaming called the Oculus Rift.[27] There has also been recent development in consumer-oriented omnidirectional treadmills because of Oculus Rift such as Virtuix Omni and Cyberith Virtualizer, which can simulate the motion of walking in a stationary environment. Sony announced their rival to the Oculus Rift technology as the prototype Project Morpheus at the Game Developers Conference during March 2014.[28]

Music

Immersive virtual musical instruments build on the trend in electronic musical instruments to develop new ways to control sound and perform music such as evidenced by conferences like NIME and aim to represent musical events and sound parameters in a virtual reality in such a way that they can be perceived not only through auditory feedback, but also visually in 3D and possibly through tactile as well as haptic feedback, allowing the development of novel interaction metaphors beyond manipulation such as prehension.

The second music video of Take On Me, a song by the Norwegian synthpop band A-ha used a pencil-sketch animation / live-action combination called rotoscoping,[29] in which the live-action footage is traced-over frame by frame to give the characters realistic movements.[29][30] Approximately 3,000 frames were rotoscoped, which took 16 weeks to complete.[31][32]

Therapy

The primary use of VR in a therapeutic role is its application to various forms of exposure therapy, ranging from phobia treatments to newer approaches to treating PTSD. A very basic VR simulation with simple sight and sound models has been shown to be invaluable in phobia treatment, like zoophobia, and acrophobia, as a step between basic exposure therapy such as the use of simulacra and true exposure. A much more recent application is being piloted by the U.S. Navy to use a much more complex simulation to immerse veterans suffering from PTSD in simulations of urban combat settings. Much as in phobia treatment, exposure to the subject of the trauma or fear leads to desensitization, and a significant reduction in symptoms.[33][34]

Other research fields in which the use of virtual reality is being explored are physical medicine, rehabilitation, physical therapy, and occupational therapy. In adult rehabilitation, a variety of virtual reality applications are currently being evaluated within upper and lower limb motor rehabilitation for individuals recovering from stroke or spinal cord injury. In pediatrics, the use of virtual reality is being evaluated to promote movement abilities, navigational abilities, or social skills in children with cerebral palsy, acquired brain injury, or other disabilities. Research evidence is emerging rapidly in the field of virtual reality for therapeutic uses. A number of recent reviews published in peer-reviewed journals have summarized the current evidence for the use of Virtual Reality within pediatric and adult rehabilitation. One such review concluded that the field is potentially promising.[35] The new field of Virtual rehabilitation has emerged recently.

There has also been talks of letting physical therapist use VR to work with patients who are in another location. They could use multiple 3-D cameras to project a 3-D avatar of the therapist who can then guide the patient throughout the patient's exercise. Haptic devices can also be used for the doctor to feel the conditions of the patient's muscle. However, to transfer the required information to support real time interactions, is far too slow at the moment.[36]

Computer-generated graphics in the 1980s made possible a new paradigm for therapy planning introducing the ability to recreate human anatomy in a virtual space, in what could be termed surgical simulation.[37] The objective was to make medical therapy (and education[38]) more precise, effective, and affordable. This type of virtual reality consists of a visually realistic environment with which the user has some degree of sensory interaction. The interactions range from a standard computer-user interface with cursor and keyboard, to the use of positionally sensitive controllers to manipulate the virtual image.

The human anatomy initially used standardised patient data to create a digital representation of anatomic space.[39][40] Later, with the advent of Computer Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging [41] ,[42] the anatomy became patient-specific and this gave impulse to surgical planning in several surgical specialties, notably neurosurgery [43] and oral and maxillofacial surgery.[44] This ultimately gave rise to the tools now available for intra-operative navigation and stereotactic surgery, like for example the Dextroscope, which was the "first widely marketed simplified virtual reality surgical simulation environment in neurosurgery.[37]"

Training

Marines training with the Future Immersive Training Environment (FITE)

The usage of VR in a training perspective is to allow professionals to conduct training in a virtual environment where they can improve upon their skills without the consequence of failing the operation.

VR plays an important role in combat training for the military. It allows the recruits to train under a controlled environment where they are to respond to different types of combat situations. A fully immersive virtual reality that uses Head-mounted display (HMD), data suits, data glove, and VR weapon are used to train for combat. This setup allows the training's reset time to be cut down, and allows more repetition in a shorter amount of time. The fully immersive training environment allows the soldiers to train through a wide variety of terrains, situations and scenarios.[45]

VR is also used in flight simulation for the Air Force where people are trained to be pilots. The simulator would sit on top of a hydraulic lift system that reacts to the user inputs and events. When the pilot steer the aircraft, the module would turn and tilt accordingly to provide haptic feedback. The flight simulator can range from a fully enclosed module to a series of computer monitors providing the pilot's point of view. The most important reasons on using simulators over learning with a real aircraft are the reduction of transference time between land training and real flight, the safety, economy and absence of pollution.[46] By the same token, virtual driving simulations are used to train tank drivers on the basics before allowing them to operate the real vehicle.[47] Finally, the same goes for truck driving simulators, in which Belgian firemen are for example trained to drive in a way that prevents as much damage as possible. As these drivers often have less experience than other truck drivers, virtual reality training allows them to compensate this. In the near future, similar projects are expected for all drivers of priority vehicles, including the police.[48]

Medical personnel are able to train through VR to deal with a wider variety of injuries.[49] An experiment was performed by sixteen surgical residents where eight of them went through laparoscopic cholecystectomy through VR training. They then came out 29% faster at gallbladder dissection than the controlled group.[47]

Implementation

Manufacturing

Virtual reality can serve to new product design, helping as an ancillary tool for engineering in manufacturing processes, new product prototypes, and simulation. Among other examples, electronic design automation, CAD, Finite Element Analysis, and computer-aided manufacturing are widely utilized programs. The use of Stereolithography and 3D printing shows how computer graphic modeling can be applied to create physical parts of real objects used in naval,[50] aerospace,[51] and automotive industries,[52] which can be seen, for example, in the VR laboratory of VW in Mladá Boleslav. Beyond modeling assembly parts, 3D computer graphics techniques are currently used in the research and development of medical devices for therapies,[53][54][55] treatments,[56] patient monitoring,[57] and early diagnoses[58] of complex diseases.

Urban design

In 2010, 3D virtual reality was becoming widely used for urban regeneration and planning and transport projects.[59]

In 2007 development began on a virtual reality software which took design coordinate geometry used by land surveyors and civil engineers and incorporated precision spatial information created automatically by the lines and curves typically shown on subdivision plats and land surveying plans. These precise spatial areas cross referenced color and texture to an item list. The item list contained a set of controls for 3D rendering such as water reflective surface or building height. The land surface in software to create a contour map uses a digital terrain model (DTM). By 2010, prototype software was developed for the core technology to automate the process leading from design to virtualization. The first beta users in 2011 were able to press a single function and automatically drape the design or survey data over the digital terrain to create data structures that are passed into a video gaming engine to create a virtual interactive world showing massing of buildings in relation to man made improvements.

A Coved land development plan using 4th generation design and principals of Prefurbia

It was the first application where virtual reality was made effortless for Urban Planning principals using technology. The software was improved to implement massing or 3D models from other free or commercially sold software to create more realistic virtual reality with very little time and effort (see the below image). The software is marketed as LandMentor and is the first precision design technology to make Urban Planning widely available with a short learning curve.

A Coved Streetscape with homes using architectural shaping and blending in Viera Florida

Concerns and challenges

Virtual reality technology faces a number of challenges, most of which involve motion sickness and technical matters. Users might become disoriented in a purely virtual environment, causing balance issues; computer latency might affect the simulation, providing a less-than-satisfactory end-user experience; the complicated nature of head-mounted displays and input systems such as specialized gloves and boots may require specialized training to operate, and navigating the non-virtual environment (if the user is not confined to a limited area) might prove dangerous without external sensory information.

In January 2014, Michael Abrash gave a talk on VR at Steam Dev Days.[60] He listed all the requirements necessary to establish presence and concluded that a great VR system will be available in 2015 or soon after. While the visual aspect of VR is close to being solved, he stated that there are other areas of VR that need solutions, such as 3D audio, haptics, body tracking, and input. However, 3D audio effects exist in games and simulate the head-related transfer function of the listener (especially using headphones). Examples include Environmental Audio Extensions (EAX), DirectSound and OpenAL.

VR audio developer Varun Nair points out that from a design perspective, sound for VR is still very much an open book. Many of the game audio design principles, especially those related to FPS games, crumble in virtual reality. He encourages more sound designers to get involved in virtual reality audio to experiment and push VR audio forward.[61]

Pioneers and notables

Industry use

The companies working in the virtual reality sector fall broadly into three categories of involvement: hardware (that is, making headsets and input devices specific to VR), software (that is, producing software for interfacing with the hardware or for delivering content to users) and content creation (that is, producing content, whether interactive or passive, for consumption with VR hardware.

Headsets:

Input devices:
Software:
Content:
'Artists:

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Erik Davis, Techgnosis: myth, magic and mysticism in the information age, 1998.
  2. ↑ Antonin Artaud, "The Alchemical Theater", in The Theater and its Double, trans. Mary Caroline Richards, New York: Grove Press, 1958, p. 49, emphasis in original. See also Samuel Weber, "'The Virtual Reality of Theater': Antonin Artaud", in Theatricality as Medium, New York: Fordham University Press, 2004, pp. 277–94.
  3. ↑ Garb, Yaakov (Winter 1987). "Virtual reality". Whole Earth Review (57): 118ff.
  4. ↑ Rheingold, Howard (1991). Virtual Reality. ISBN 0-262-68121-8.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Pygmalion's Spectacles". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  6. ↑ Horowitz, Ken (December 28, 2004). "Sega VR: Great Idea or Wishful Thinking?". Sega-16. Archived from the original on 2010-01-14. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
  7. ↑ "Virtuality". YouTube. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  8. ↑ Gonzales, D. (editor) (1991). "Automation and Robotics for the Space Exploration Initiative: Results from Project Outreach". . 92 (17897): 35.
  9. ↑ Engler, Craig E. (1992-11). "Affordable VR by 1994". Computer Gaming World. p. 80. Retrieved 4 July 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ↑ http://arcadeheroes.com/2013/06/06/segas-wonderful-simulation-games-over-the-years/
  11. ↑ http://system16.com/hardware.php?id=845&page=1#2866
  12. ↑ https://archive.org/stream/nextgen-issue-006/Next_Generation_Issue_006_June_1995#page/n23/mode/2up
  13. ↑ "Nintendo Virtual Boy on theverge.com".
  14. ↑ "Google Street View in 3D: More Than Just an April Fool's Joke".
  15. ↑ http://nintendo.about.com/od/wiiliving/fl/Nintendo-Patent-Hints-at-Their-Ideas-for-Virtual-Reality-Gaming.htm
  16. ↑ "Facebook to buy Oculus virtual reality firm for $2B". The Associated Press. March 25, 2014. Retrieved March 27, 2014.
  17. ↑ "Sony Announces 'Project Morpheus:' Virtual Reality Headset For PS4".
  18. ↑ Cline, Mychilo Stephenson (2005). Power, Madness, & Immortality: the Future of Virtual Reality. Virtualreality.universityvillagepress.com. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  19. ↑ "Virtual Reality and Nirvana by Dr. Anil Rajvanshi". Boloji.com. 2005-04-10. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  20. ↑ "The Future of Virtual Reality with Mychilo Cline » Introduction to the Future of Virtual Reality". Virtualreality.universityvillagepress.com. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  21. ↑ Castranova, E. (2007). Exodus to the Virtual World: How online fun is changing reality. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  22. ↑ Pimentel, K., & Teixeira, K. (1993). Virtual reality. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-8306-4065-2
  23. ↑ "Architecture's Virtual Shake-Up" Tayfun King, Click, BBC World News (2005-10-28)
  24. ↑ http://gettoknowworld.com
  25. ↑ "Ijon Tichy - Series Bibliography". Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  26. ↑ Hemley, Matthew (2008-09-30). "BBC radio launches major cross-station sci-fi season". The Stage. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
  27. ↑ "Oculus Rift Virtual-Reality Headset at CES - Lauren Goode - Product News". AllThingsD. 2013-01-11. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
  28. ↑ "Introducing: Project Morpheus". PlayStation.Blog.Europe. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 J.C. Maçek III (2012-08-02). "'American Pop'... Matters: Ron Thompson, the Illustrated Man Unsung". PopMatters.
  30. ↑ Keating; Pizer; Fig Leaf Software, 2002. p. 247.
  31. ↑ Billboard vol. 97 no. 26 (29 June 1985), p. 37.
  32. ↑ "Taking on A-ha classic". bbc.co.uk. 2010-10-07. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
  33. ↑ A Dose of Virtual Reality
  34. ↑
  35. ↑ Sandlund M, McDonough S, Häger-Ross C. "Interactive computer play in rehabilitation of children with sensorimotor disorders: a systematic review.", Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, v51 n3 p173-179 Mar 2009. Retrieved on 2010-07-22
  36. ↑ "Pushing Boundaries of Virtual Reality", written on Feb.5,2013
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Robison, R. A., C. Y. Liu, and M. L. J. Apuzzo. “Man, Mind, and Machine: The Past and Future of Virtual Reality Simulation in Neurologic Surgery.” World Neurosurgery 76, no. 5 (2011): 419–30.
  38. ↑ 37. Tiede U, Bomans M, Hohne KH, Pommert A, Riemer M, Schiemann T, Schubert R, Lierse W: A computerized three-dimensional atlas of the human skull and brain. AJNRAmJ Neuroradiol 14:551-559, 1993.
  39. ↑ Balogh AA, Preul MC, Laszlo K, Schornak M, Hickman M, Deshmukh P, Spetzler RF: Multilayer image grid reconstruction technology: four-dimensional interactive image reconstruction of microsurgical neuroanatomic dissections. Neurosurgery 58(1 suppl):ONS157-ONS165, 2006.
  40. ↑ Bernardo A, Preul MC, Zabramski JM, Spetzler RF: A three-dimensional interactive virtual dissection model to simulate transpetrous surgical avenues. Neurosurgery 52:499-505, 2003.
  41. ↑ Batnitzky S, Price HI, Lee KR, Cook PN, Cook LT, Fritz SL, Dwyer SJ 3rd, Watts C: Three-dimensional computer reconstructions of brain lesions from surface contours provided by computed tomography: a prospectus. Neurosurgery 11:73-84, 1982.
  42. ↑ Gandhe AJ, Hill DL, Studholme C, Hawkes DJ, Ruff CF, Cox TC, Gleeson MJ, Strong AJ: Combined and three-dimensional rendered multimodal data for planning cranial base surgery: a prospective evaluation. Neurosurgery 35:463-471, 1994.
  43. ↑ Kockro, R. A., L. Serra, Y. Tseng-Tsai, C. Chan, S. Yih-Yian, C. Gim-Guan, E. Lee, L. Y. Hoe, N. Hern, and W. L. Nowinski. “Planning and Simulation of Neurosurgery in a Virtual Reality Environment.” Neurosurgery 46, no. 1 (January 2000): 118–135; discussion 135–137.
  44. ↑ Vannier MW, Marsh JL, Warren JO: Three Dimensional CT Reconstruction Images for Craniofacial Surgical Planning and Evaluation, Radiology, 150(1):179-84, 1984
  45. ↑ "Virtual reality used to train Soldiers in new training simulator".
  46. ↑ Dourado, Antônio O.; Martin, C.A. (2013). "New concept of dynamic flight simulator, Part I". Aerospace Science and Technology 30 (1): 79–82. doi:10.1016/j.ast.2013.07.005.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "How Virtual Reality Military Applications Work".
  48. ↑ RDS. "Nieuws Pivo en VDAB bundelen rijopleiding vrachtwagens". Het Nieuwsblad. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  49. ↑ "Virtual reality combat training".
  50. ↑
  51. ↑ "CEI : News". Legacy.ensight.com. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  52. ↑ "Werkzeug- und Formenbau — Motion Control Systems — Siemens". Automation.siemens.com. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  53. ↑ "Silicone Medical Device Testing". Dynatek dalta. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  54. ↑ "Special Feature: Emerging Technologies | Medical Product Manufacturing News". Mpmn-digital.com. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  55. ↑ Shantesh Hede, Nagraj Huilgol (2006). ""Nano": The new nemesis of cancer Hede S, Huilgol N". Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics 2 (4). Cancerjournal.net. p. 186. doi:10.4103/0973-1482.29829. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  56. ↑ Couvreur, Patrick (2006-06-16). "IngentaConnect Nanotechnology: Intelligent Design to Treat Complex Disease". Pharmaceutical Research 23 (7). Ingentaconnect.com. pp. 1417–1450. doi:10.1007/s11095-006-0284-8. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  57. ↑ "Over the Horizon: Potential Impact of Emerging Trends in information and Communication Technology on Disability Policy and Practice". Ncd.gov. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  58. ↑ "Nanomedicine - 1(1):67 - Summary". Future Medicine. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  59. ↑ Roudavski, S. (2010). Virtual Environments as Techno-Social Performances: Virtual West Cambridge Case-Study, in CAADRIA2010: New Frontiers, the 15th International Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, ed. by Bharat Dave, Andrew I-kang Li, Ning Gu and Hyoung-June Park, pp. 477-486
  60. ↑ "Abrash Dev Days" (PDF).
  61. ↑ "Exploring New Sonic Worlds: Sound for Virtual Reality".
  62. ↑ Rosenberg, L., "Virtual fixtures as tools to enhance operator performance in telepresence environments," SPIE Manipulator Technology, 1993.
  63. ↑ Rosenberg, "Virtual Haptic Overlays Enhance Performance in Telepresence Tasks," Dept. of Mech. Eng., Stanford Univ., 1994.
  64. ↑ Rosenberg, "Virtual Fixtures: Perceptual Overlays Enhance Operator Performance in Telepresence Tasks," Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University.

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Choi, SangSu, Kiwook Jung, and Sang Do Noh. "Virtual reality applications in manufacturing industries: Past research, present findings, and future directions." Concurrent Engineering (2015): 1063293X14568814.

External links

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External video
Virtual Reality, Computer Chronicles (1992)