Ten Great Campaigns

The Ten Great Campaigns (Chinese: 十全武功; pinyin: shí quán wǔ gōng) were a series of wars fought during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, much celebrated in the official Qing dynasty annals. They included three to enlarge the area of Qing control in Central Asia: two against the Zunghars (1755–1757) and the pacification of Xinjiang (1758–1759). The other seven campaigns were more in the nature of police actions on frontiers already established – two wars to suppress the Jinchuan rebels in Sichuan, another to suppress rebels in Taiwan (1787–1788), and four expeditions abroad against the Burmese (1765–1769), the Vietnamese (1788–1789), and the warlike Gurkhas in Nepal on the border between Tibet and India (1790–1792), the last counting as two.

The Dzungars and pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)

First Campaign Against the Zunghars
Surrender of Dawachi Khan in 1755
Date 1755 Location Xinjiang Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Dzungar Khanate
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Bandi (Overall Command) Zhao Hui (Assistant Commander) Emin Khoja Amursana Burhān al-Dīn Khwāja-i Jahān	Dawachi POW
Strength
9,000 Manchu Eight Bannermen 19,500 Inner Mongols 6,500 Outer Mongols 2,000 Zunghars 5,000 Uyghurs from Hami and Turfan 12,000 Chinese	20,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Of the ten campaigns, the final destruction of the Dzungars^[1] was the most significant. The 1755 Pacification of Dzungaria and the later suppression of the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas secured the northern and western boundaries of Xinjiang, eliminated rivalry for control over the Dalai Lama in Tibet, and thereby eliminated any rival influence in Mongolia. It also led to the pacification of the Islamicised, Turkic-speaking southern half of Xinjiang immediately thereafter.^[2]

In 1752, Dawachi and the Khoit-Oirat prince Amursana competed for the title of Khan of the Dzungars. Dawachi defeated Amursana various times and gave him no chance to recover. Amursana was thus forced to flee with his small army to the Qing court. Qianlong pledged to support Amursana since Amursana accepted Qing authority; among those who supported Amursana and the Chinese were the Uyghur brothers Burhān al-Dīn (波羅尼都) and Khwāja-i Jahān (霍集占). In 1755, Qianlong sent Zhao Hui aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River Zhao Hui was able to approach Ili (Gulja) and Dawachi surrendered. Qianlong made Amursana Khan of Khoit as one of four equal khans to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be Khan of the Zunghars.

Second Campaign Against the Zunghars
The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1758, Zhao Hui ambushes Amursana at night.
Date 1756-1758 Location Xinjiang Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Dzungars loyal to Amursana
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Bandi  †(1757) (Overall Command until death in battle) Cäbdan-jab (Overall Command) Zhao Hui (Assistant Commander) Ayushi Emin Khoja Burhān al-Dīn Khwāja-i Jahān	Amursana Chingünjav  †
Strength
10,000 Bannermen 5,000 Uyghurs from Turfan and Hami Plus Zunghars	20,000 Dzungars
Casualties and losses
Unknown	everyone defeated except for 50 men of Chingünjav who fled

In the summer of 1756 Amursana started a Dzungar revolt against the Chinese with the help of Chingünjav. The Qing dynasty reacted at the start of 1757 and sent Zhao Hui with support from Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Among several battles, the most important ones were illustrated in the paintings of Qianlong. Zunghar leader Ayushi defected to the Chinese side and attacked the Zunghar camp at Gadan-Ola (Battle of Gadan-Ola). The great general Zhao Hui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu (1758) and the Battle of Khurungui (1758). In the former battle Zhao Hui attacked Amursana's camp at night; Amursana was able to fight on until Zhao Hui received enough reinforcements to drive off Amursana. Between the time of Oroi-Jalatu and Khurungui, the Chinese under Prince Cabdan-jab defeated Amursana at the Battle of Khorgos (known in the Qianlong engravings as "The Victory of Khorgos"). At Mount Khurungui Zhao Hui defeated Amursana in a night attack on his camp after crossing a river and drove off Amursana. To commemorate the two victories of Zhao Hui, Qianlong had the Puning Temple of Chengde constructed, home to the world's tallest wooden sculpture of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara and hence its alternate name, the 'Big Buddha Temple'. Afterwards Huo Jisi of Turfan submitted to the Qing dynasty. After all of these battles, Amursana fled to Russia (where he died) and Chingünjav fled north to Darkhad but was captured at Wang Tolgoi and executed in Beijing.

Campaign in Altishahr (Pacification of Xinjiang)
The Battle of Qurman 1759, Fu De and Machang bring 600 troops to relieve Zhao Hui in Black River.
Date 1758-1759 Location Xinjiang Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Altishahri followers of the Khoja Brothers Kyrgyzs Zunghar rebels
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Zhao Hui (Overall Command) Fu De (Assistant Commander) Agui Dou Bin Rongbao Zhanyinbao Fulu Shuhede Ming Rui Arigun Machang Namjil  † Yan Xiangshi Yisamu Duanjibu Khoja Emin Khoja Si Bek Sultan Shah of Badakshan	Khwāja-i Jahān POW Burhān al-Dīn POW
Strength
10,000 Bannermen Uyghurs from Hami, Turfan and Badakshan Plus Zunghars	30,000 Altishahr (Tarim Basin) Uyghurs
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

After the second campaign against the Dzungars in 1758, two Altishahr nobles the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn (Buranidun ) and Khwāja-i Jahān ((Hojijan ) began a revolt against the Qing dynasty. Aside from the remaining Dzungars they were also joined by the Kyrgyz peoples and the Oases Turkic peoples (Uyghur) in Altishahr (Tarim Basin). After capturing several towns in Altishahr there were still two rebel fortresses at Yarkand and Kashgar at the end of 1758. Uyghur Muslims from Turfan and Hami including Emin Khoja and Khoja Si Bek stayed loyal to the Qing and helped the regime fight the Altishahri Uyghurs under Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Zhao Hui unsuccessfully besieged Yarkand and fought an indecisive battle outside the city, this engagement is known as the Battle of Tonguzluq. He instead took other towns east of Yarkand but was forced to retreat, the Zunghar and Uyghur rebels laid siege to him at the Siege of Black River Fort (Kara Usu). In 1759, Zhao Hui sent for relief troops, 600 troops showed up and were under the overall command of generals Fu De and Machang with the 200 cavalry led by Namjil; other high-ranking officers included Arigun, Dou Bin, Duan Ji Bu, Fulu, Yan Xiangshi, Janggimboo, Yisamu, Agui and Shuhede. On February 3, 1759, over 5,000 enemy cavalry led by Burhān al-Dīn ambushed the 600 relief troops at the Battle of Qurman. The Uyghur and Zunghar cavalry were stopped by the Qing zamburak artillery camels, musketry and archers; Namjil and Machang led a cavalry charge on one of the flanks. It seems that Namjil was killed and Machang was unhorsed and fought well on foot with his bow. After a hard fought battle the Qing were victorious and attacked the Zunghar camp, causing the enemies besieging Black River to withdraw. After the victory at Qurman, the Qing overran the remaining rebel towns and Ming Rui led a detachment of cavalry and defeated Zunghar cavalry at the Battle of Qos-Qulaq. The Uyghurs retreated from Qos-Qulaq but were defeated by Zhao Hui and Fu De at the Battle of Arcul (Altishahr) on September 1, 1759, the rebels were again defeated at the Battle of Yesil Kol Nor. After these defeats Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān fled with their small army of supporters to Badakshan. Sultan Shah promised to protect them but he contacted the Qing dynasty and promised to turn them over. The fleeing rebels came to Sultan Shah's capital and after some time he attacked them and after a quick battle captured them. When the Chinese came to Sultan Shah's capital he handed over the rebels that had fled from them and Sultan Shah submitted to Chinese authority.

Suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples (1747–1749, 1771–1776)

First Campaign Against Jinchuan
Depiction of Qing troops campaigning in the land of the Jinchuan "the Little Gold Stream"
Date 1747-1749 Location Sichuan Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire	Jinchuan tribes
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Zhang Kuangtsu (Overall Command)(Executed by Qianlong) No-ch'in (Assistant Commander)(Executed by Qianlong) Fuheng (Overall Command) Zhao Hui (Assistant Commander)	Slob Dpon Tshe Dbang
Strength
Unknown	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Second Campaign Against Jinchuan
Qing general Fuk'anggan assaults Luobowa mountain tower
Date 1771-1776 Location Sichuan Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire	Jinchuan tribes
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Agui (Overall Command) Fuk'anggan (Assistant Commander) Fu De (Executed by Qianlong in 1776) Wenfu  †	Sonom Senggesang
Strength
8,000	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

The suppression of the Jinchuan hill people was the costliest and most difficult, and also the most destructive. The Jinchuan (literally "Golden Stream") was northwest of Chengdu in western Sichuan. The tribal peoples there were related to the Tibetans of the Amdo. The first campaign in 1747–1749 was a simple affair; with little use of force the Manchu general induced the native chieftains to accept a peace plan, and departed.

Interethnic conflict brought the Manchus back after twenty years. The result was the Qing expeditionary force being forced to fight a protracted war of attrition costing the Qing treasury several times the amounts expended on the earlier conquests of the Zunghars and Xinjiang. The resisting tribes retreated to their stone towers and forts in steep mountains and could only be dislodged by cannon. The Manchu generals were ruthless in annihilating the rebellious tribes, then reorganised the region in a military prefecture and repopulated it with more cooperative inhabitants.^[2] When victorious troops returned to Beijing, a celebratory hymn was sung in their honor. A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the Jesuit Amoit and sent to Paris.^[3]

The Burmese Campaigns (1765–1769)

The Qianlong Emperor launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769. The war claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders,^[4] and is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged",^[5] and one that "assured Burmese independence and probably the independence of other states in Southeast Asia".^[6] Burma's successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries.^[4]

At first, Qianlong envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the Green Standard troops stationed in Yunnan. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in the Burmese invasion of Siam. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765 and 1766 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, Ava.^[7] But the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses.^[4] After the close-call, King Hsinbyushin redeployed most of the Burmese armies from Siam to the Chinese border. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.^[5][8]

The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. The Burmese too were preoccupied with another impending invasion by the Chinese, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. Twenty years later, Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790. To the Burmese the resumption was on equal terms. But Qianlong unilaterally interpreted the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory.^[5] Ironically, the main beneficiaries of this war were the Siamese. After having lost their capital Ayutthaya to the Burmese in 1767, they regrouped in the absence of large Burmese armies, and reclaimed their territories in the next two years.^[7]

The Pacification of Taiwan (1786-1788)

Pacification of Taiwan
The Return of the Qing fleet from Taiwan
Date 1786-1788 Location Taiwan Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire	Taiwanese Rebels
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Fuk'anggan	Lin Shuang-wen POW Zhuang Datian Tianhui POW
Strength
3,000 police 10,000 troops sent to relieve Taiwan in 1786 20,000 troops brought by Fuk'anggan in 1788	300,000 rebels
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

In 1786, Taiwan's Minister discovered and suppressed the Heaven and Earth Society, the members of Heaven and Earth Society had gathered Ming loyalist comrades, and their leader Lin Shuang-wen (林爽文) proclaimed himself king. Many important people took part in this revolt and the insurgents quickly rose to 50,000 people. In, less than a year the rebels occupied almost the entire part of southern Taiwan. Hearing that the rebels had occupied most of Taiwan, Qing troops were sent to suppress them in a hurry. The east insurgents defeated the poorly organized troops and they had to resist falling to the enemy. Finally, the Qing court sent General Fuk'anggan while Hai Lan, Counselor of the Police, deployed nearly 3,000 people to fight the insurgents. These new troops were well equipped, disciplined and had combat experience which proved enough to route the insurgents. The Ming loyalists had lost the war and their leaders and remaining rebels hid among the locals. Lin Shuang-wen and Zhuang Datian Tiandihui and other leaders had started a rebellion which at first was successful, and as many as 300,000 took part in the rebellion. The Qing general Fu Kang'an was sent to quell the rebellion with a force of 20,000 soldiers, which he accomplished. The campaign was relatively expensive for the Qing government, although leaders Lin Shuang-wen and Zhuang Datian were both captured. After the revolt ended, Qianlong was forced to rethink the method of government for Taiwan.

The Gurkha Campaigns (1788–1793)

First Campaign Against Gurkhas
Fuk'anggan captures Camu from the Nepalese
Date 1788-1791 Location Tibet Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire	Kingdom of Nepal
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Fuk'anggan	Rana Bahadur Shah
Strength
10,000	10,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Second Campaign Against Gurkhas
Fuk'anggan storms the fortress of Xiebulu
Date 1791-1793 Location Tibet, Nepal Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire	Kingdom of Nepal
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Fuk'anggan	Rana Bahadur Shah
Strength
70,000	20,000 - 30,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

The Gurkha wars display the Qing court's continuing sensitivity to conditions in Tibet. The late 1760s saw the creation of a strong state in Nepal and the involvement in the region of a new foreign power, Britain, through their British East India Company. The rash Gurkha rulers of Nepal decided to invade southern Tibet in 1788. The two Manchu resident agents in Lhasa (Ambans) made no attempt at defense or resistance. Instead they took the child Panchen Lama to safety when the Nepalese troops came through and plundered the rich monastery at Shigatse on their way to Lhasa. Upon hearing of the first Nepalese incursions, the Qianlong Emperor commanded troops from Sichuan to proceed to Lhasa and restore order. By the time they reached southern Tibet, the Gurkhas had already withdrawn. This counted as the first of two wars with the Gurkhas.

In 1791 the Gurkhas returned in force. Qianlong urgently dispatched an army of 10,000 men. It was made up of around 6,000 Manchu and Mongol forces supplemented by tribal soldiers under the able general Fuk'anggan, with Hailancha as his deputy. They entered Tibet from Xining (Qinghai) in the north, shortening the march but making it in the dead of winter 1791–1792, crossing high mountain passes in deep snow and cold. They reached central Tibet in the summer of 1792 and within two or three months could report that they had won a decisive series of encounters that pushed the Gurkha armies across the crest of the Himalaya and back into the valley of Kathmandu. Fuk'anggan fought on into 1793, when he forced the battered Gurkhas to sign a treaty on Manchu terms which forced Gurkhas to pay tax every five years.^[2]

The Campaign in Vietnam (1788–1789)

Campaign in Vietnam
Fuk'anggan defeats the Vietnamese at Tho-xuong River in 1788
Date 1788-1789 Location Vietnam Result Tay Son victory
Belligerents
Qing Empire Lê dynasty	Tay Son dynasty
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Fuk'anggan (Overall Command)(recalled to China before New Year) Sun Shiyi (Assistant Commander) Xu Shiheng Zhang Zhaolong Le Chieu Thong Hoàng Phùng Nghĩa	Nguyễn Huệ Phan Văn Lân Ngô Văn Sở Nguyễn Tăng Long Đặng Xuân Bảo Nguyễn Văn Lộc Nguyễn Văn Tuyết Đặng Tiến Đông Phan Khải Đức Nguyễn Văn Diễm Nguyễn Văn Hòa
Strength
40,000 Qing troops 20,000 Lê dynasty supporters	50,000 regulars 20,000 newly recruited militia
Casualties and losses
30,000	10,000

For most of her history, the Vietnamese rulers sometimes recognized the Chinese Emperor as their feudal lord, while ruling independently in their own land. This had been the case throughout the reign of the Later Lê dynasty. This changed however when the brothers of Tây Sơn, leading a national uprising, defeated the feuding Trịnh and Nguyễn lords and overthrew the last Lê ruler, Emperor Lê Chiêu Thống.

Emperor Lê Chiêu Thống fled to China and appealed to Emperor Qianlong (Vietnamese: Càn Long) for help. In 1788 a large Qing army was sent south to restore Lê Mẫn Đế to the throne. They succeeded in taking Thăng Long (Hà Nội) and putting Emperor Chiêu Thống back on the throne, but many of his supporters were angered by their subservient position. Chiêu Thống was treated as a vassal king by Qianlong and all edicts had to be authorized by the Qing before becoming official. In any event, the situation did not last long as the Tây Sơn leader, Nguyễn Huệ, launched a surprise attack against the Qing forces while they were celebrating the Chinese New Year festival of the year 1789. The Chinese were unprepared but fought for five days before being defeated at Battle of Đống Đa. Chiêu Thống fled back to China as Nguyễn Huệ was proclaimed Emperor Quang Trung.^[9] Although Nguyễn Huệ won this battle, he eventually elected to submit himself as vassal of Qing China and agreed to pay tribute annually. This strategic move was to avoid retaliation and for the greater benefit of trading with Qing China.

The Campaigns in Perspective

In his later years, Qianlong referred to himself with the grandiose style name of "Old Man of the Ten Completed [Great Campaigns]" (十全老人). He also wrote an essay enumerating the victories in 1792 entitled "Record of Ten Completions" (十全记).^[10]

The campaigns were major financial drain on Qing, costing more than 151 million taels of silver.^[11]

• The tribes at Jinchuan numbered less than 30,000 households and took five years to pacify.
• Nearly 1.5 million piculs (1 picul = 100 catty) were transported for the Taiwan campaigns.
• Instead of restoring Emperor Lê Mẫn Đế to the throne as the Vietnam campaign was intended, Qianlong ended up settling with the new Tay Son dynasty, and even arranging for imperial marriage between Qing and Tay Son.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ten Great Campaigns.

See also

• Stalin's ten blows (1944)

References

Qing dynasty topics History Seven Grievances First Manchu invasion of Korea Second Manchu invasion of Korea Qing conquest of the Ming Great Clearance Revolt of the Three Feudatories Sino-Russian border conflicts Dzungar–Qing War Chinese Rites controversy Ten Great Campaigns Miao Rebellion (1735–36) Lhasa riot of 1750 Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa Sino-Nepalese War Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) White Lotus Rebellion First Opium War Sino-Sikh War Taiping Rebellion Nian Rebellion Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) Miao Rebellion (1854–73) Nepalese–Tibetan War Panthay Rebellion Second Opium War Self-Strengthening Movement Dungan Revolt (1862–77) Mudan Incident (1871) Sino-French War Sikkim Expedition Jindandao Incident First Sino-Japanese War Gongche Shangshu movement Dungan Revolt (1895–96) Hundred Days' Reform Boxer Rebellion Red Lanterns Eight-Nation Alliance New Policies British expedition to Tibet 1905 Tibetan Rebellion Chinese invasion of Tibet (1910) Railway Protection Movement Xinhai Revolution Wuchang Uprising Xinhai Lhasa Turmoil Mongolian Revolution of 1911 Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang Manchu Restoration Government List of emperors of the Qing dynasty Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty Flag of the Qing dynasty Cup of Solid Gold Great Qing Legal Code Grand Council Imperial Household Department Imperial Clan Court Ministry of Posts and Communications Zongli Yamen Lifan Yuan Amban General of Ili Imperial Commissioner Grand coordinator and provincial governor Provincial military commander Nine Gates Infantry Commander Viceroys Zhili Shaan-Gan Liangjiang Huguang Sichuan Min-Zhe Liangguang Yun-Gui Three Northeast Provinces Military Military of the Qing dynasty Eight Banners Green Standard Army Ever Victorious Army Xiang Army Chu Army Huai Army Beiyang Army Wuwei Troop New Army Imperial Guards Brigade Peking Field Force Hushenying Shuishiying Mongolia during the Manchu Qing rule Administrative divisions Tibet under Qing administrative rule List of imperial residents Taiwan under Qing rule Compilations & Documents Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor Gujin Tushu Jicheng Kangxi Dictionary Peiwen Yunfu Quan Tangshi Treaty of Nerchinsk Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) Pentaglot Dictionary History of Ming Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao Researches on Manchu Origins Imperial Decree of declaration of war against foreign powers Imperial Decree on events leading to the signing of Boxer Protocol Qinding Xianfa Dagang Unequal treaty Treaty of Nanking Treaty of the Bogue Treaty of Wanghia Treaty of Whampoa Treaty of Canton Treaty of Kulja Treaty of Aigun Treaty of Tientsin Convention of Tientsin Convention of Peking Burlingame Treaty Chefoo Convention Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) Treaty of Shimonoseki Li–Lobanov Treaty Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory Boxer Protocol Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet Buildings & Architecture Mukden Palace Summer Palace Old Summer Palace Chengde Mountain Resort Puning Temple Putuo Zongcheng Temple Fuling Tomb Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Eastern Qing tombs Western Qing tombs Society & Culture Qing poetry Kaozheng Changzhou School of Thought Shanghai School Literary Inquisition Booi Aha Dibao Queue Qing official headwear Shamanism in the Qing dynasty Islam during the Qing dynasty Dushi Fangyu Jiyao The Palace of Eternal Life The Peach Blossom Fan Dream of the Red Chamber The Scholars Bolor Erike Six Records of a Floating Life Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Song Huiyao Jigao Journal of Current Pictorial Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan The Travels of Lao Can Xingshi Yinyuan Zhuan Haoqiu zhuan Dijing Jingwulue The Carnal Prayer Mat Four Wangs Manchu Han Imperial Feast The Nine-tailed Turtle The Sing-song Girls of Shanghai Historiography Draft History of Qing New Qing History High-level equilibrium trap Sprouts of capitalism Other topics Manchu people Aisin Gioro Willow Palisade Chuang Guandong Canton System Treaty ports Anti-Qing sentiment Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty