Slovene grammar

The following is an overview of the grammar of the Slovene language.

Common phonological changes

As in most other Slavic languages, changes to consonants and vowels often occur between related forms of words. Most of these can be traced back to changes that occurred in the ancestral Proto-Slavic language. Over time, many of the original changes have been reversed or levelled out.

Consonant alternations

The following table gives an overview of the above changes:

Normal b p v m d t s z g k h
First palatalization b p v m d t s z ž č š
Second palatalization b p v m d t s z z c s
Iotation blj plj vlj mlj j č š ž ž č š

These changes are very similar to those found in the related Serbo-Croatian language, but in iotation, Slovene j corresponding to Serbo-Croatian đ, and č with ć.

Hard and soft stems

Word stems that end in c, č, š, ž or j are called "soft" stems, while the remainder is "hard". When endings begin with -o-, this vowel usually becomes -e- after a soft stem; this is called "preglas" in Slovene. This happens in many noun and adjective declensions, and also in some verbs. For example, the instrumental singular form of korak "step" is korakom, while for stric "uncle" it is stricem.

There are also some instances where the vowel stays as o, such as the accusative singular of feminine nouns. These instances can be traced back to an earlier nasal vowel ǫ in Proto-Slavic, which did not undergo this change.

Fill vowel

When certain hard-to-pronounce consonant clusters occur word-finally, an additional fill vowel is inserted before the last consonant(s) of the word to break up the cluster. This typically happens where there is no ending, like in the nominative singular, or the genitive dual and plural. The fill vowel is usually a schwa (/ə/, spelled e). For example, the noun igra "game" has the genitive plural form iger, not igr.

If the last consonant is j, then i is used as the fill vowel instead. For example, ladja "boat" has the genitive plural ladij. However, if the stem ends in lj, nj or rj, then the fill vowel is the normal e and is inserted before both consonants. The noun ogenj "fire", for example, loses the fill vowel in the genitive singular form ognja.

There are a few cases where the fill vowel is instead a stressed a. These are irregular and must simply be memorized. An example is ovca "sheep", which is ovac in the genitive plural, not ovec.

Noun

In Slovenian, nouns are marked for case and number. There are 6 cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, and instrumental) and 3 numbers (singular, dual, and plural). Slovenian nouns are divided into 3 genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Each gender has different declension patterns giving a total of 10 declension forms.

Adjective

The adjective expresses three main ideas: quality (qualitative adjectives, kakovostni pridevniki), relation (relational adjectives, vrstni pridevniki) and possession (possessive adjectives, svojilni pridevniki).

Adjectives in Slovenian can serve in three syntactical functions: left attributes (levi prilastek), predicate articles (povedkovo določilo) and predicate attributes (povedkov prilastek).

Želim modno pričesko. (I would like a fashionable haircut.)
Pričeska je modna. (The haircut is fashionable.)
Pričeska je bila narejena lepo. (The haircut has been made beautiful.)

The majority of adjectives are of the first kind. These express any qualities and properties of personal and impersonal nouns. Such adjectives are gradable either in the two- or three-step comparison, depending if they are relative to another, opposite adjective (three-step) or not (two-step or three-step). (lep - grd (beautiful - ugly) vs bolan (ill)).

Relational adjectives express type, class or numerical sequence of a noun. For instance: kemijska in fizikalna sprememba (chemical and physical change), fotografski aparat (photographic device (=camera)).

Possessive pronouns define possession, ownership or belonging. For example: barvin sijaj (the colour's shine), Karmenina torbica (Karmen's handbag), delavska halja (workers' overall).

Some adjectives expressing properties next to masculine nouns imply definiteness ('relation') or indefiniteness ('quality') of nouns.
For an exactly defined noun or a specific type thereof:

For nouns which are not exactly defined, either being mentioned for the first time or generic:

Adjectives ending in -i and all possessive pronouns do not have special indefinite forms. There are two special adjectives which have special definite and indefinite forms for all genders and all cases, namely majhen (small) and velik (big) (the definite forms are mali and veliki respectively).

Example:

The adjective matches the subject or the predicate article to which it is ascribed. If it describes two singular nouns or one dual noun, the adjective should be in the dual. If it describes a plural or one singular and one non-singular noun, the adjective should be in the plural. Although gender should match the group, sometimes the gender of the adjacent noun is used with the appropriate grammatical number. For declension patterns of adjectives, see the section on nouns (the fourth declension is always adjectival). Some adjectives, however, are never declined, for example bež (beige), poceni (cheap), roza (pink), super (super), seksi (sexy), and some other loanwords.

Possessive adjectives for masculine and neuter possessed nouns add -ov (or -ev if the possessive noun ends in c, č, ž, š and j ("preglas")) to the possessive noun. Feminine possessed nouns always take -in. Possessive nouns can include proper names, in which case they are written capitalised.

Negative adjectives are formed by prefixing the negative ne-, which is almost always a proper form, even though sometimes a Latin prefix is an alternative.

Comparative

The comparative is formed by adding the ending -ši (-ša, -še), -ejši (-ejša, -ejše) or -ji (-ja, -je) to an adjective, or using the word bolj (more) in front of an adjective in case of stressing, and also when the adjective in question cannot be formed by adding an ending, such as when dealing with colours, or when the adjective ends in such a sound that it would be difficult to add the appropriate ending.

For instance:

Superlative

The superlative is formed by prepending the word naj directly in front of the comparative, whether it comprises one or two words.

Verb

Main article: Slovene verbs

In Slovenian, the verbs are conjugated for 3 persons and 3 numbers (singular, dual, and plural). There are 4 tenses (present, past, pluperfect, and future), 3 moods (indicative, imperative, and conditional) and 2 voices (active and passive). Verbs also have 4 participles and 2 verbal nouns (infinitive and supine). Not all combinations of the above are possible for every case.

Gerund

A gerund is a noun formed from a verb, designating an action or a state. The standard substantive in Slovenian ends in -anje or -enje:

For example:

Numerals

Main article: Slovene numerals

Adverb

The adverb in Slovene is always the same as the singular neuter form of any given adjective if derived from an adjective.

  1. "Dan je bil lep." (The day was nice.) - masculine adjective
  2. "Bilo je lepo." (It was nice.) - neuter adjective

—> "Imeli smo se lepo." (literally, "We had ourselves nicely.", the meaning is 'We had a nice time.')

—> "Govorili so lepo." (They spoke nicely.)

Other types of adverb are derived from nouns (doma (at home), jeseni (in autumn)), prepositional constructions (naglas (aloud), pozimi (in winter), potem (then)), verbs (nevede (unknowingly), skrivoma (secretly), mimogrede (by the way)) or numerals (see adverbial numeral).

In essence, there are four main types of adverb: adverbs of time (danes (today), večno (perpetually)), adverbs of place (domov (towards home, homewards)), adverbs of manner (grdo (uglily), povsem (entirely)) and adverbs of cause and reason (nalašč (on purpose)).

Adverbs are, much like adjectives, normally gradable.

Pronouns

Main article: Slovene pronouns

Pronouns can replace a noun in a sentence; this is, as opposed to, say, an adjective or an adverb.

Personal pronouns

A personal pronoun denotes the speaker (I), the addressee (you) or a third person (it). Personal pronouns in Slovene are inflected in a somewhat unusual way, for there are many different forms for each of the pronouns.

Several of the pronouns have unstressed and clitic forms that are unstressed, and may attach to another word. For example:

The nominative forms of personal pronouns are not used in neutral sentences, only when emphasizing the subject, especially so for the first person singular jaz "I". This is because unlike in English, the form of the verb gives all applicable information such as the gender, grammatical number and person by itself.

The reflexive pronoun begins with s- and is used to refer back to the subject, or to some other word.

For example:

Similarly as in German and English, the reflexive pronoun can sometimes be replaced by the reciprocal phrase drug drugega "each other, one another". Thus:

The accusative se can bind with prepositional words just like other personal pronouns:

Other cases and examples:

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: kdo "who" and kaj "what".

Relative pronouns

The substantival relative pronoun is derived from the interrogative by adding -r: kdor "who, that", kar "which, that".

Negative pronouns

The negative pronoun is derived from the interrogative as well, and starts with ni-: nihče "nobody, anybody", nič "nothing, anything".

A negative pronoun demands a negative predicate, resulting in the so-called double negation:

Universal pronouns

The universal pronouns are vsakdo "everyone" and vse "everything, all".

Vsak "each, every" is an adjective that can function as a pronoun. Also in this category are vsakateri and vsakteri, both meaning "everyone", which are old-fashioned and not used in modern language.

Indefinite pronouns

The indefinite pronoun is derived from the interrogative, and starts with ne-: nekdo "someone, anyone", nekaj "something, anything". It refers to an unknown or deliberately untold person or object. The inflection follows the pattern of kdo and kaj.

The interrogatives kdo and kaj, can also refer to any unspecified person or object, or one that can be chosen at will.

Relative indefinite pronouns

The relative indefinite pronouns are kdorkoli or kdor koli (whoever) and karkoli or kar koli (whatever). The meaning conveyed is very similar to the unspecified pronoun. The inflexion follows the pattern of the relative pronoun with -koli or  koli appended. The space, as shown, is optional, but for sake of consistency, once one method has been adopted, one should not use the other.

Manifold pronouns

The manifold pronouns are marsikdo "many (people)" and marsikaj "many (things)". The inflexion follows the basic pattern of kdo and kaj. Although these pronouns refer to multiple people or things, they are grammatically singular. In addition to marsi-, other prefixes are possible, such as redko- (redkokdo "rarely anyone"), mnogo- (mnogokdo, same as marsikdo, although perhaps somewhat less usual) and malo- (malokdo "few (people)").

Determiners

See also: Determiner

Possessive determiners

These all inflect as regular adjectives.

Singular Dual Plural
1st person mój "my" nájin "our" nàš "our"
2nd person tvój "your" vájin "your" vàš "your"
Reflexive svój "one's (own)"
3rd person masculine njegôv, njegòv "his" njún "their" njíhov "their"
3rd person feminine njén "her"
3rd person neuter njegôv, njegòv "its"

Example sentences:

The reflexive determiner svoj is used much as the reflexive pronoun is used, to point back to the subject or another word.

The reflexive possessive and 'normal' possessive pronouns make some ambiguous English sentences perfectly clear in Slovene. The sentence "She has taken her towel into the bathroom" can be translated into the following two ways:

Other determiners

Qualitative (Kakovostni) Relational (Vrstni) Possessive (Svojilni) Quantitative (Količinski)
Interrogative (Vprašalni) kakšen, kolikšen (what kind of, to what extent)kateri (which, what)čigav (whose)koliko (how much, how many)
Relative (Oziralni) kakršen (the kind that)kateri, ki (which, that)čigar, katerega (whose)kolikor (as much)
Negative (Nikalni) nikakršen (of no kind)noben, nobeden (no one)nikogar, ničesar (of no one, of nothing)nič, noben (nothing, none)
Total (Celostni) vsakršen (of every kind)vsak (everyone)vsakogar, vsega (of everyone, of everything)ves, oba (all, both)
Indefinite (Nedoločni) nekak(šen) (some kind of)neki (some(one))nekoga, nečesa (someone's, something's)nekoliko (somewhat)
Unspecified (Poljubnostni) kak(šen)kateričigavkoliko
Relative Unspecified (Oziralni poljubnostni) kakršenkoli (whatever kind)katerikoli (whichever)čigarkoli (whosever)kolikorkoli (however much)
Mnogostni (Manifold) marsikak(šen) (of many kinds)marsikaterimarsičigavdokaj, precej (quite a bit, quite a lot)
Differential (Drugostni) drugačen (different)drug (someone else)drugega (of someone else)ne toliko (not that/as much)
Equal (Istostni) enak (of the same kind)isti (the same)istega (of the same one)enako (the same [amount])
Demonstrative (Kazalni) tak(šen) (of this kind)ta, tisti, oni (that one)tega (of that one)toliko (this much)

Quantitative adverbial pronouns are non-inflected at all times. All other pronouns are normally inflected.

Examples:

Interjection

An interjection is ordinarily an uninflected word expressing mental states, encouragement towards actions, greetings or mocking of sounds and voices.

Interjections may be inflected; however, in spite of the words' being the same, such use calls for a different word class (part of speech), this most frequently being nouns.

Slovene syntax

Case use

The nominative case defines a subject of a sentence; all other cases define an object as either direct or indirect.

Case Slovene (semi) English
Nominative Moj stol je v sobi My chair is in the room
Genitive Mojega stola ni v sobi My chair is not in the room
Genitive Košček papirja mi je ostal v dlani A piece of paper remained in my palm
Genitive Tipkovnica računalnika je vhodna enota A computer’s keyboard is an input device
Dative Beraču je dal denar He gave money to a beggar
Accusative Vidim zvezde I see the stars
Locative Mnogo je rečenega o novem sodniku A lot is being said about the new judge
Instrumental Na sprehod grem s svojim psom I am going for a walk with my dog

Use of number

There are four types of inflexion related to the grammatical number in Slovene. The future tense shall be used to demonstrate its usage. The future tense is formed with the verb to be in the future tense plus the l-participle of the full lexical verb. For example, a table of the English expression "I will see" ("Jaz bom videl") when including gender for he ("on") and she ("ona") without it ("ono") can be written as:

Singular Dual (semi) Plural
I will see We (both/two) will see We (all) will see
You will see You (both/two) will see You (all) will see
He/She will see They (both/two) will see They (all) will see

can be translated into Slovene as:

Singular with M/F gender Dual with M/F gender Plural with M/F gender
Jaz bom videl/Jaz bom videla Midva bova videla/Midve bova videli Mi bomo videli/Me bomo videle
Ti boš videl/Ti boš videla Vidva bosta videla/Vidve bosta videli Vi boste videli/Ve boste videle
On bo videl/Ona bo videla Ona (or onadva) bosta videla/Oni (or onidve) bosta videli Oni bodo videli/One bodo videle

Not only does Slovene have singular and plural, but it also has the rare dual grammatical number, or a separate form of every noun used when there are only two such items (except for natural pairs, such as trousers, eyes, for which plural is used). Dual grammatical number, when an ambiguity between dual and plural forms exists, can be rendered into other languages in various ways; comparatively often, there is no ambiguity and the dual is extraneous. (This explains the relatively early disappearance of the dual in most languages). Dual grammatical number was a feature of the Proto-Slavic language which has been retained by Slovene. An example of dual grammatical number would be "onadva sta" ("The two are") which refers to two objects or subjects in the masculine gender or "onidve sta" ("The two are") which refers to the same concept, but in the feminine gender. However "oni so" ("They are ") refers to more than two objects or subjects in the masculine gender while "one so" ("They are") does the same the feminine gender. Dual grammatical number is also preserved in gender. The dual is used consistently in Slovene.

Bil je lep jesenski dan. Odšla sva v park. Usedla sva se na klopco in se pogovarjala. Lepo nama je bilo.
It was a nice autumn day. We (the two of us) went to the park. We (the two of us still) sat down on a bench and talked. We had a nice time.
Bil je lep jesenski dan. Odšli smo v park. Usedli smo se na klopco in se pogovarjali. Lepo nam je bilo.
It was a nice autumn day. We went to the park. We sat down on a bench and talked. We had a nice time.

The first phrase sounds much more romantic and intimate to a Slovene, a style that is impossible to translate into English with its lack of dual grammatical number.

Sentence

Constituents

In a sentence, there can only be four types of constituent, the order of which is seldom crucial:

subject (osebek) + predicate (povedek) + object (predmet) + adverbial phrase (prislovno določilo).

By changing the order, the stressed part changes. It may also serve to create poetic sentiment, for inversion is common in poetry.

Free sentence

Včeraj sem šel domov. (I went home yesterday.) (or: Yesterday I went home.)
Danes prihajam domov. (I am coming home today.)
Jutri bom šel od doma. (I'll leave home tomorrow.)

Compound sentence

Res me veseli, da si prišel. (I am really glad you came.)
Da tako je bilo, kakor praviš! (Yes it was as you say!)

Incomplete sentence

This is a sentence which does not have a predicate.

Rana ura, zlata ura. (Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise; The early bird catches the worm (literally Early hour, golden hour))

Inserted sentence

V tistih časih bil sem še mlad in sem od sveta veliko pričakoval sem lepega večera srečal starega berača in ... (In those times I was still young and I expected a lot from the world I met an old beggar one fair evening and ...)

Accompanying sentence and direct speech

"Dobro jutro," je rekla Lojza. ("Good morning," said Aloysine.)
Lojza je rekla: "Dobro jutro." (Aloysine said, "Good morning.")
Dobro jutro. ("Good morning.")

See also the section on inverted commas.

Punctuation

Main article: Slovene punctuation

Punctuation marks are one or two part graphical marks used in writing, denoting tonal progress, pauses, sentence type (syntactic use), abbreviations, et cetera.

Marks used in Slovene include full stops (.), question marks (?), exclamation marks (!), commas (,), semicolons (;), colons (:), dashes (), hyphens (-), ellipses (...), different types of inverted commas and quotation marks ("", '', ‚‘, „“, »«), brackets ((), [], {}) (which are in syntactical use), as well as apostrophes (',’), solidi (/), equal signs (=), and so forth.