Red meat

For other uses, see Red meat (disambiguation).

Red meat in traditional culinary terminology is meat which is red when raw and not white when cooked. Red meat also includes the meat of most adult mammals.

An uncooked rib roast.
Roast beef.

Definitions

Agricultural

According to the USDA, all meats obtained from mammals are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than chicken or fish.[1]

Nutritional

The determinant of the nutritional definition of the color of meat is the concentration of myoglobin. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1–0.3%; young beef has 0.4–1.0%; and old beef has 1.5–2.0%.[2]

Visual description of meat

In gastronomy, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat. The meat from mammals such as cows, sheep, veal calves, lamb, pigs, horses is invariably considered red, while chicken and rabbit meat is invariably considered white.[3] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: viandes noires — "black meats")[4]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[5] Red meat is the richest source of lipoic acid, a powerful antioxidant.[6]

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[7] The liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.

USDA recommendations

The 1992 edition of the USDA food guide pyramid has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat.[8] The 2005 edition, MyPyramid, was incomprehensible[8] but the accompanying website stated that "fish, nuts, and seeds contain healthy oils, so choose these foods frequently instead of meat or poultry" and for people who wanted to eat meat, it recommended lean or low-fat red meat and poultry.[9]

In 2011 the USDA launched MyPlate, which didn't distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz of fish each week.[10][11]

Healthy Eating Plate

In 2011 the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate to better communicate with the public and to make different recommendations than the USDA, which has to contend with lobbying from many quarters.[10] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to limit red meat and avoid processed meat, and to instead choose fish, poultry, beans or nuts.[10] Its website says: "Eating a lot of red meat and processed meat has been linked to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. So it’s best to avoid processed meat, and to limit red meat to no more than twice a week. Switching to fish, chicken, nuts, or beans in place of red meat and processed meat can improve cholesterol levels and can lower the risk of heart disease and diabetes.[10]

Human health

Red meat is not a uniform product; its health effects can vary based on fat content, processing and preparation. Processed red meat is strongly linked to higher mortality, mainly due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer.[12] There is some evidence too that the consumption of unprocessed red meat may be bad for human health.[13]

Cancer

The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) classify red meat consumption as carrying an increased risk of contracting bowel cancer.[14] In the United Kingdom approximately 21% of bowel cancers are associated with red meat consumption.[14] The WCRF recommends limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11 oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."[15]

Red meat consumption also increases the risk of lung cancer.[16]

There is suggestive evidence that red meat intake might increase the risk of esophageal, pancreatic, stomach, endometrial and bladder cancer.[17][18][19][20]

There is no good evidence that red meat consumption increases breast cancer or prostate cancer risk.[21][22]

Mechanisms

Epidemiological studies have found that an increased consumption of processed and red meat is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. The risk is not associated with white meat like chicken.[23][24] Processed meats (like bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages) are preserved by smoking, salting, and addition of certain chemicals like nitrates and nitrites. Nitrates and nitrites can be converted by our body into nitrosamines that can be carcinogenic, causing mutation in the colorectal cell line, thereby causing tumorigenesis and eventually leading to cancer.[25] Cooking red meat at high temperature and smoking produces the carcinogens polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCA)[26] Red meat itself contains certain factors that, under certain conditions, produce carcinogens like N-nitroso compounds (NOCs)[27] Additionally, the heme iron that gives meat its red color may promote carcinogenesis due to its ability to increase cell proliferation in the mucosa, through lipid peroxidation and/or cytotoxicity of fecal water[28] Both marinating fresh lean red meat and thoroughly cooking the meat at low temperature will reduce the production of carcinogenic compounds and thereby lower the risk of colorectal cancer.[29][30]

Cardiovascular diseases

The postwar Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of CHD and marked the beginning of our current understanding.[31]

Many studies associate red meat consumption with cardiovascular diseases. Specifically red meat consumption is associated with ischemic heart disease, stroke,[32] with greater intima-media thickness, (an indicator of atherosclerosis),[33][34] acute coronary syndrome,[35] A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women,[36]

Processed Meat Vs Unprocessed

The consensus on the role of red meat consumption to increased risk of cardiovascular diseases has changed in recent years. Studies that differentiate between processed and fresh red meat have failed to find a link between unprocessed red meat consumption and heart disease. A major Harvard University meta-study[37][38] in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that the "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."

Mechanisms

Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on serum cholesterol,[39] that red meat contains arachidonic acid,[40] heme iron,[41] and homocysteine.,[42] its high content of saturated fat.[33] Bacteria in the digestive tract of people who eat meat have been found to produce a spike in TMAO when supplied with carnitine (abundant in red meat).[43][44][45][46][47][48] TMAO is a metabolite that promotes atherosclerosis, a thickening of the arteries.

Risk

Those that eat more than 8 servings of red meat per month are 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.[49]

A 21-year follow up of about thirty thousand Seventh-day Adventists (adventists are known for presenting a "health message" that recommends vegetarianism) found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.[50]

The risk of coronary disease due to high cholesterol can be mitigated by switching to a leaner red meat. According to one study, funded by the beef producers advocacy group, National Cattlemen's Beef Association, eating lean meat (both red and white) produced nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups.[51][52]

Diabetes

Red meat intake has been associated with an increased risk of type II diabetes.[53][54][55] Interventions in which red meat is removed from the diet can lower albuminuria levels.[56] Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve glomerular filtration rate.[57]

Other findings have suggested that the association may be due to saturated fat, trans fat and dietary cholesterol, rather than red meat per se.[55][58][59] An additional confound is that diets high in processed meat could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.[60]

One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes”.[61]

Obesity

The Diogenes project used data from ninety thousand men and women over about seven years and found that "higher intake of total protein, and protein from animal sources was associated with subsequent weight gain for both genders, strongest among women, and the association was mainly attributable to protein from red and processed meat and poultry rather than from fish and dairy sources. There was no overall association between intake of plant protein and subsequent changes in weight."[62] They also found an association between red meat consumption and increased waist circumference.

A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower BMIs.[63] A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.[64]

A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist.[65] In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain.[66] Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."[67]

A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain.[68] Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.[69][70]

Other health issues

Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to hypertension,[33] and arthritis.[33][71]

Culture

In some cultures, eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male rite of passage.[72]

See also

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References

  1. ↑ "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  2. ↑ "Iowa State Animal Science". Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  3. ↑ "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  4. ↑ Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. ↑ Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet, September 1990, http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf
  6. ↑ The Nutrition Reporter newsletter, Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Quite Possibly the "Universal" Antioxidant, July 1996, http://www.thenutritionreporter.com/Alpha-Lipoic.html
  7. ↑ http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Harvard School of Public Health, The Problems with the Food Guide Pyramid and MyPyramid, 2008, http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/mypyramid-problems/
  9. ↑ "Inside the Pyramid". United States Department of Agriculture. 2005. Archived from the original on 2005-08-01.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Harvard School of Public Health, 2012. [Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html]
  11. ↑ USDA MyPlate Protein foods Page accessed February 27, 2015
  12. ↑ European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition; Sabine Rohrmann, Kim Overvad, et al. (7 March 2013). "Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". BMC Medicine. 11:63 (1): 63. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-63. Retrieved March 7, 2013. The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer.
  13. ↑ Larsson SC, Orsini N (February 2014). "Red meat and processed meat consumption and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis". Am. J. Epidemiol. (Meta-analysis) 179 (3): 282–9. doi:10.1093/aje/kwt261. PMID 24148709.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Bowel cancer risk factors". Cancer Research UK. 17 December 2013. Retrieved September 2014.
  15. ↑ http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/?p=recommendation_05
  16. ↑ Xue XJ, Gao Q, Qiao JH, Zhang J, Xu CP, Liu J (2014). "Red and processed meat consumption and the risk of lung cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 33 published studies". Int J Clin Exp Med (Meta-analysis) 7 (6): 1542–53. PMC 4100964. PMID 25035778.
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  20. ↑ Ferrís J, Berbel O, Alonso-López J, Garcia J, Ortega JA (October 2013). "Environmental non-occupational risk factors associated with bladder cancer". Actas Urol Esp (Review) 37 (9): 579–86. doi:10.1016/j.acuro.2013.02.004. PMID 23618510.
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  27. ↑ "Inherited Bowel Cancer". geneticseducation.nhs.uk.
  28. ↑ Lynch, Dennis. "Thanksgiving Turkey 2014: What Is The Difference Between Dark Meat And White Meat?". International Business Times.
  29. ↑ "Marinades Reduce Heterocyclic Amines from Primitive Food Preparation Techniques". Schor J.
  30. ↑ "Seer Stat Fact Sheets: Colon and Rectum Cancer". Seer.cancer.gov. National Cancer Institute.
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  32. ↑ Fung, T. T. et al. "Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women." Stroke 35.9 (2004): 2014.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Fraser, G. (1 September 1999). "Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists" (FREE FULL TEXT). The American journal of clinical nutrition 70 (3 Suppl): 532S–538S. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 10479227.
  34. ↑ Oh, Sun Min et al. "Association between meat consumption and carotid intima-media thickness in Korean adults with metabolic syndrome." Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health = Yebang Ŭihakhoe Chi 43.6 (2010): 486–495
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  43. ↑ "New Health Culprit Carnitine Found in Red Meat". The Wall Street Journal. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-07.
  44. ↑ "It’s Not Just the Fat: There’s Another Way Red Meat May Harm the Heart". Time Magazine. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
  45. ↑ "Culprit in Heart Disease Goes Beyond Meat’s Fat". The New York Times. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
  46. ↑ "Chemical in Red Meat Linked to Heart Disease". Voice of America. 2013-04-09. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
  47. ↑ "Carnitine chemical, not fat, may explain link between red meat and heart disease". CBS News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
  48. ↑ "Red meat linked to heart disease". NBC News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
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  56. ↑ de Mello, V. D. F. et al. "Withdrawal of red meat from the usual diet reduces albuminuria and improves serum fatty acid profile in type 2 diabetes patients with macroalbuminuria." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83.5 (2006): 1032.
  57. ↑ Gross, J. L.; Zelmanovitz, T.; Moulin, C. C.; De Mello, V.; Perassolo, M.; Leitão, C.; Hoefel, A.; Paggi, A.; Azevedo, M. J. (2002). "Effect of a Chicken-Based Diet on Renal Function and Lipid Profile in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A randomized crossover trial". Diabetes Care 25 (4): 645–651. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.4.645. PMID 11919119.
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  66. ↑ Bes-Rastrollo, M.; Sánchez-Villegas, A.; Gómez-Gracia, E.; Martínez, J. A.; Pajares, R. M.; Martínez-González, M. A. (2006). "Predictors of weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: The Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra Study 1". The American journal of clinical nutrition 83 (2): 362–370; quiz 370–5. PMID 16469996.
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  69. ↑ Song, Y.; Park, M. J.; Paik, H. -Y.; Joung, H. (2009). "Secular trends in dietary patterns and obesity-related risk factors in Korean adolescents aged 10–19 years". International Journal of Obesity 34 (1): 48–56. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.203. PMID 19823182.
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External links

Look up red meat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.