Red-shouldered hawk

The red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) is a medium-sized hawk. Its breeding range spans eastern North America and along the coast of California and northern to northeastern-central Mexico. Red-shouldered hawks are permanent residents throughout most of their range, though northern birds do migrate, mostly to central Mexico. The main conservation threat to the widespread species is deforestation.

Description

Males are 38 to 58 cm (15 to 23 in) long and weigh on average 550 g (1.21 lb). Females are slightly larger at 47 to 61 cm (19 to 24 in) in length and a mean weight of 700 g (1.5 lb). The wingspan can range from 90 to 127 cm (35 to 50 in).^[2][3][4][5] Adult birds can vary in mass from 460 to 930 g (1.01 to 2.05 lb). Among standard measurements, the wing bone is 28–35 cm (11–14 in) long, the tail is 16–24 cm (6.3–9.4 in) long and the tarsus is 7.5–9 cm (3.0–3.5 in).^[6] Adults have brownish heads, reddish chests, and pale bellies with reddish bars. Their tails, which are quite long by Buteo standards, are marked with narrow white bars. Red "shoulders" are visible when the birds are perched. These hawks' upper parts are dark with pale spots and they have long yellow legs. Western birds may appear more red, while Florida birds are generally paler. The wings of adults are more heavily barred on the upper side. Juvenile red-shouldered hawks are most likely to be confused with juvenile broad-winged hawks, but can be distinguished by their long tails, crescent-like wing markings, and a more flapping, Accipiter-like flight style. In direct comparison, it is typically larger and longer proportioned than the Broad-wing, though is slightly smaller and more slender than most other common North American Buteos. This bird is sometimes also confused with the widespread red-tailed hawk. That species is larger and bulkier, with more even-sized, broad wings and is paler underneath, with a reddish tail often apparent. The Red-tail is also more likely to soar steadily, with wings in a slight dihedral.

Taxonomy

The red-shouldered hawk is a member of the genus Buteo, a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings. Members of this genus are known as buzzards in Europe, but hawks in North America.^[7]

There are five recognized subspecies of Buteo lineatus, which vary in range and in coloration:^[8]

• B. l. lineatus (Gmelin, 1788)
• B. l. alleni
• B. l. elegans
• B. l. extimus
• B. l. texanus

Distribution and habitat

An eastern population ranges west through s. Canada from s. New Brunswick and w. Ontario to eastern edge of U.S. Great Plains, south to Florida, Gulf Coast, and e. Mexico. Only northernmost populations are migratory. A western population breeds west of Sierra Nevada from North California to North Baja California, and has recently expanded into Oregon and Arizona, and east of the Sierra Mountains in California.

Eastern population winters from s. Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Ohio and s. New England south to Gulf Coast; occasionally throughout breeding range. In winter, reported south to Jalisco, state of México, and Veracruz, Mexico. Western population largely non-migratory. Throughout its winter range, this species avoids higher elevations.

Eastern birds occasionally wander west (e.g., Colorado, Kansas, West Texas, Manitoba, North Dakota) in migration; Western birds have strayed east to Arizona, Nevada, Idaho, and Utah, and north to Washington.^[9]

In the East, individuals from the northern half of the species’ range are migratory. In the West, most populations are sedentary. Red-shouldered hawks are short- to moderate-distance migrants, with most individuals traveling distances between 300 km and 1,500 km each way. The species follows leading lines, migrating along inland ridges and coastlines. Larger numbers of red-shouldered hawks are counted at coastal watchsites than at inland sites. Juveniles often precede adults on migration in autumn, whereas adults precede juveniles in the spring. Red-shouldered hawks typically migrate alone, although they sometimes form small flocks of three or more birds. The species usually avoids crossing large bodies of water. While migrating, red-shouldered hawks are observed in soaring, gliding, and flapping flight ^[10]

Red-shouldered hawks are forest raptors. In the East, they live in bottomland hardwood stands, flooded deciduous swamps, and upland mixed deciduous–conifer forests. They tend to live in stands with an open subcanopy, which makes it easier for them to hunt. They are not exclusively birds of deep forest, though; one can find red-shouldered hawks in some suburban areas where houses or other buildings are mixed into woodlands. In the West, they live in riparian and oak woodlands, and also in eucalyptus groves and some residential areas.^[11]

Behavior

	Red-shouldered hawk Woodbridge, Connecticut, April 2002. By Tony Phillips.
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Diet

Red-shouldered hawks search for prey while perched on a treetop or soaring over woodlands. When they sight prey, they kill it by dropping directly onto it from the air. They may cache food near their nest for later consumption.^[12] When in clearings, they sometimes fly low to surprise prey. red-shouldered hawks, like most raptors, have very sharp vision and reasonably good hearing, with talons capable of killing animals at least equal to their own size. Small mammals are typically the most important prey, especially rodents. Voles, gophers, mice, moles and chipmunks may locally be favored based on abundance. Slightly larger mammals, such as rabbits and tree squirrels, are also occasionally predated. Other prey can include amphibians, reptiles (especially small snakes), small birds, and large insects. They will attack birds as large as pigeons. Blue jays, a potential prey species, sometimes habitually imitate the call of the red-shouldered hawk and are known to be difficult to distinguish on voice alone.^[13] During winters, red-shouldered hawks sometimes habituate to preying on birds commonly found at bird feeders. In some areas where they are common, crayfish can be important prey for this species. Unusual food items recorded for the species have included turnal animals such as eastern screech owls and flying squirrels and road-killed deer.^[14]

Reproduction

The breeding habitats of the red-shouldered hawk are deciduous and mixed wooded areas, often near water. They have been known to nest near residential areas and open water but this is much less common.^[15] Red-shouldered hawks select sites with greater tree species richness for nesting.^[16] Like almost all raptors, the red-shouldered hawk is monogamous and territorial. While courting or defending territories, the distinctive, screaming kee-aah call (usually repeated three to four times) of this bird is heard. Courtship displays occur on the breeding grounds, and involve soaring together in broad circles while calling, or soaring and diving toward one another. Males may also perform the "sky-dance" by soaring high in the air, and then making a series of steep dives, each followed by a wide spiral and rapid ascent. These courtship flights usually occur in late morning and early afternoon.

Red-shouldered hawks' mating season is between April and July, with activity usually peaking between April and mid-June. The breeding pair builds a stick nest (also sometimes including shredded bark, leaves and green sprigs) in a major fork of a large tree. They often use the same nest year after year, refurbishing it annually with sticks in the spring. The clutch size is typically three to four eggs. The blotchy-marked eggs, often brown to lavender in color, measure on average 54.5 mm × 43 mm (2.15 in × 1.69 in). The incubation period can range from 28 to 33 days. Hatching is asynchronous, with the first chick hatching up to a week before the last. The hatchlings, which weigh 35 g (1.2 oz) at first, are brooded almost constantly by the female for up to 40 days. Pairs that nest earlier in the breeding season tend to lay greater numbers of eggs and have higher productivity from those eggs.^[17] The male more often captures food but will also incubate and brood occasionally. The young leave the nest at about six weeks of age, but remain dependent on the parents until they are 17 to 19 weeks old. They may continue to roost near the nest site until the following breeding season. Breeding maturity is usually attained at 1 or 2 years of age.

Although they have lived as long as within a month of 20 years old, few live half that long and only around half survive their first year. Each year overall nesting success can be lower than 30 percent.^[18] Early mortality can be due to natural causes, relating to harsh weather conditions, or more often starvation. Young hawks are often parasitized by species such as Trichomonas gallinae, Protocalliphora avium, and blood parasites.^[19] Humans, unintentionally or intentionally are a threat to red-shouldered hawks, including hunting, collision with electric wires, road accidents and logging. A further common cause of mortality is natural predation. Raccoons, martens, fishers and large arboreal snakes can predate eggs, hatchlings, fledgings and occasionally incubating and brooding adults. Non-nesting adults, being a fairly large and powerful predator, have fewer natural predators, but (both during and after the breeding season as well among nestling hawks) they may be predated by great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, barred owls, other red-shouldered hawks, northern goshawks, peregrine falcons, prairie falcons, and bald and golden eagles. In western New York, the main cause of nest failure was stated to be great horned owl predation.^[20] Many of the same predators sometimes compete over territory and food with this species. Despite their highly similar diet and habitat preferences, it has been found that red-shouldered hawks can nest within 48 m (157 ft) barred owl without interspecies conflict.^[21] In Florida, red-shouldered hawks sometimes collaborate and peaceably coexist with American crows (usually an enemy to all other birds because of their egg-hunting habits) so they cooperatively mob mutual predators, mainly great horned owls and red-tailed hawks.^[22]

Status

Prior to 1900, the red-shouldered hawk was one of the most common North American raptors. Population densities have decreased precipitously due to the clearing of mature forests (principally the wet hardwood forest they prefer) since that time. The changing of habitats has led to a general population increase of the red-tailed hawk, an occasional predator of its cousin. Additionally affecting the red-shouldered hawk was the greater availability of firearms in the early 1900s, leading to unchecked hunting of this and all other raptor species until conservation laws took effect in the latter half of the 20th century. Local forest regrowth and the ban of hunting has allowed red-shouldered hawk populations to become more stable again and the species is not currently considered conservation dependent. In Florida, the red-shouldered hawk is perhaps the most commonly seen and heard raptor species.^[23] However, human activity, including logging, poisoning from insecticides and industrial pollutants, continue to loom as threats to the species.Before its use was outlawed in the United States, red-shouldered hawks and other raptors suffered from exposure to DDT, a pesticide. The DDT would cause their eggs to have thin, breakable shells, reducing their ability to reproduce. Accidental encounters with power lines and automobiles also take a toll on hawks. In spite of these dangers, habitat loss remains the biggest threat to red-shouldered hawks.^[4]

In art

John James Audubon illustrates the red-shouldered hawk in his book

Gallery

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  Perched, taken in Northern Virginia

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  In Lighthouse Beach Park, Sanibel, Florida

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  In Carrboro, NC, 2007

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  With a kill

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  Red-shouldered hawk taken in Dunwoody, GA, 2008

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  Cloisters City Park in Morro Bay, CA

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  Kanapaha Botanical Gardens, Gainesville, FL, 2008

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  Red-shouldered hawk in Palm Beach County, Florida USA, 2012

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  With feathers fluffed up

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  Red-shouldered hawk at the Avian Reconditioning Center, Florida

References

• University of Michigan- Buteo lineatus species information

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Red-shouldered hawk.

Wikispecies has information related to: Buteo lineatus

Wikisource has original text related to this article: "Red-shouldered Hawk" by John James Audubon

Wikisource has original text related to this article: "Winter Hawk" by John James Audubon

• Red-shouldered hawk Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
• Red-shouldered hawk – Buteo lineatus – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
• Stamps (with North American Range Map) at bird-stamps.org
• Red-shouldered hawk videos, photos, and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
• Red-shouldered hawk Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History
• Video of red-shouldered hawk from Missouri Department of Conservation.
• Red-shouldered hawk photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)

• Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) – hawk Mountain hawk Mountain. Retrieved 2104-02-27.

Subfamily: Buteoninae Genus Species (extinctions: † indicates a species confirmed to be extinct) Geranoaetus Black-chested buzzard-eagle Variable hawk White-tailed hawk Buteo Common buzzard Red-tailed hawk Long-legged buzzard Rough-legged buzzard Ferruginous hawk Red-shouldered hawk Broad-winged hawk Swainson's hawk Ridgway's hawk White-rumped hawk Short-tailed hawk White-throated hawk Galápagos hawk Gray hawk Zone-tailed hawk Hawaiian hawk Rufous-tailed hawk Mountain buzzard Madagascar buzzard Upland buzzard Red-necked buzzard Jackal buzzard Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk Rupornis Roadside hawk Parabuteo Harris's hawk White-rumped hawk Buteogallus Rufous crab hawk Common black hawk Cuban black hawk Great black hawk Savanna hawk Busarellus Black-collared hawk Leucopternis White-browed hawk White-necked hawk Black-faced hawk Plumbeous hawk Barred hawk Slate-coloured hawk Semiplumbeous hawk Pseudastur Grey-backed hawk White hawk Mantled hawk Kaupifalco Lizard buzzard Butastur Rufous-winged buzzard Grasshopper buzzard White-eyed buzzard Grey-faced buzzard Harpyhaliaetus Crowned solitary eagle Montane solitary eagle Morphnus Crested eagle Harpia Harpy eagle Pithecophaga Philippine eagle Harpyopsis New Guinea harpy eagle Spizaetus Black hawk-eagle Black-and-white hawk-eagle Ornate hawk-eagle Black-and-chestnut eagle Nisaetus Crested hawk-eagle Mountain hawk-eagle Blyth's hawk-eagle Javan hawk-eagle Sulawesi hawk-eagle Philippine hawk-eagle Wallace's hawk-eagle Lophaetus Long-crested eagle Stephanoaetus Crowned eagle Malagasy crowned eagle† Polemaetus Martial eagle Hieraaetus Wahlberg's eagle Ayres's hawk-eagle Booted eagle Little eagle Pygmy eagle Aquila Bonelli's eagle African hawk-eagle Rufous-bellied eagle Golden eagle Eastern imperial eagle Spanish imperial eagle Steppe eagle Tawny eagle Verreaux's eagle Gurney's eagle Wedge-tailed eagle Clanga Greater spotted eagle Lesser spotted eagle Indian spotted eagle Ictinaetus Black eagle Haliaeetus White-bellied sea eagle Sanford's sea eagle African fish eagle Madagascar fish eagle Pallas's fish eagle White-tailed eagle Bald eagle Steller's sea eagle Ichthyophaga Lesser fish eagle Grey-headed fish eagle Harpagornis Haast's eagle† Eagle Buzzard