Ramayana

For other uses, see Ramayana (disambiguation).
Rama with Sita on the throne, with their children Lava and Kusha on their laps. Behind the throne, Lakshman, Bharat, and Shatrughna stand. Hanuman bows to Rama before the throne.Valmiki is to the left.

The Ramayana (Sanskrit: रामायणम्, Rāmāyaṇam, pronounced [rɑːˈmɑːjəɳəm]) is a Sanskrit epic poem ascribed to the Hindu sage and Sanskrit poet Valmiki.[1] It is regarded as one of the two great works of Indian literature, along with the Mahabharata.[2] Considered itihāsa, the Ramayana also plays an important role in Hindu literature (smṛti). It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife, and the ideal king. The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to "Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas),[3] and tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu supreme-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by Ravana, the king of Lanka (current day Sri Lanka). Incidentally the first letter of every 1000 verses (total 24) make the Gayatri mantra. Thematically, the Ramayana explores human values and the concept of dharma.[4]

Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anuṣṭubh. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life and culture. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story: it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages (Vedas) in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and devotional elements. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshman, Bharata, Hanuman, and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India, Nepal, and many south-east Asian countries such as Thailand and Indonesia.

There are other versions of the Ramayana in Indian languages, besides Buddhist and Jain adaptations; and also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese, and Malaysian versions of the tale.

Textual history and structure

Scene Ramayana, Gupta art, National Museum, New Delhi.

Traditionally, the Ramayana is attributed to Valmiki.[5] The Hindu tradition is unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet; the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama and a peripheral actor in the drama.[6] The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana, dating to approximately the 5th to 4th century BCE.[7] While it is often viewed as a primarily devotional text, the Vaishnava elements appear to be later accretions, possibly dating to the 2nd century BCE or later. The main body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's divinity, and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare and subdued even in the later parts of the text.[8]

According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the Ramayana belongs to the genre of itihāasa, like the Mahabharata. The definition of itihāasa has varied over time, with one definition being that itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life.[1] According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[9]

In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a palm-leaf manuscript found in Nepal and dated to the 11th century CE.[10] The text has several regional renderings,[11] recensions, and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions: the northern (n) and the southern (s).[12] Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."[13]

There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are integral parts of the book, in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.[14][15]

Famous retellings include Gona Budda Reddy's Ramayanam in Telugu, Kamban's Ramavataram in Tamil (c. 11th–12th century), Madhava Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese (c. 14th century), Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan (also known as Shri Rama panchali) in Bengali (c. 15th century), sant Eknath's Bhavarth Ramayan (c. 16th century) in Marathi (which is spoken in Maharashtra), Balaram Das' Dandi Ramayana (also known as the Jagamohan Ramayana) (c. 16th century) in Oriya, Tulsidas' Ramcharitamanas (c. 16th century) in Awadhi (which is an eastern form of Hindi),[11] and Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan's Adhyathmaramayanam in Malayalam.

Period

Some cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggests that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata.[16] However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of north India and Nepal, while the Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.[17]

By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the treta yuga to king Daśaratha in the Ikshvaku vamsa (clan).[18] Maharishi Valmiki—the writer of Ramayana and a contemporary of Lord Rama—has described in three shlokas.[19] The positions of planets at the time of birth of lord Rama.[20]

The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Daśaratha, Janaka, Vashista, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature.[21] However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.[22] According to the modern academic view, Vishnu—who, according to bala kanda, was incarnated as Rama—first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the "puranic" period of the later 1st millennium CE. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishtira.[23]

There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (bala kanda and uttara kanda, respectively) are later additions.[24] The author or authors of bala kanda and ayodhya kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and with the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen janapadas, based on the fact that the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known about the region. The knowledge of the location of the island of Lanka also lacks detail.[25] Basing his assumption on these features, the archeologist Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the composition of the text.[26] However, the historian and indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.[27]

The seven kandas (books)

The epic is traditionally divided into several major kāndās (books), which deal chronologically with the major events in the life of Rama.[11] The division into 7 kāndās is as follows:

Kanda/Book Title Contents
1 Bāla Kāṇḍa (Book of childhood) The origins and childhood of Rama, born to king Dasharatha of Ayodhya and destined to fight demons. Sita's swayamvara and subsequent wedding to Rama.[28]
2 Ayodhya Kāṇḍa (Book of Ayodhya) The preparations for Rama's coronation in the city of Ayodhya, his exile into the forest, and the regency of Bharata.[28]
3 Araṇya Kāṇḍa (Book of the forest) The forest life of Rama with Sita and Lakshmana, his constant companion. The kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.[28]
4 Kishkindha Kāṇḍa (Book of the monkey kingdom) Rama meets Hanuman and helps destroy the monkey people's king, Vali, making Vali's younger brother, Sugriva, king of Kishkindha instead.[28]
5 Sundara Kāṇḍa (Book of beauty) Detailed accounts of Hanuman's adventures, including his meeting with Sita. Traditionally read first when reading the Ramayana, this book's name derives from the fond name given to Hanuman by his mother.[28]
6 Yuddha Kāṇḍa (Book of war, also known as Lanka Kanda) The battle in Lanka between the monkey and the demon armies of Rama and Ravana, respectively. After Ravana is defeated, Sita undergoes the test of fire, completes exile with Rama, and they return to Ayodhya to reign over the ideal state.[28]
7 Uttara Kāṇḍa (Last book) The detailed story of Ravana's life, his encounter with Lord Shiva , Vali, Sugreeva's brother and Kartha Veera Arjuna and many others until Shurpanakha's humiliation in the Aranya Khanda is retold by sage Vashishta to Rama and Sita. Rumors of impurity lead to Sita's banishment, during which she gives birth to and raises Lava and Kusha.Later, in course of time Sita diappears into the earth. The twin boys of Sita later ascend the throne of Ayodhya, after which Rama reaches vaikuṇṭa upon requests from the gods. People of Ayodhya who followed Rama were offered santhanika lokas.[28]

Characters

Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshmana, while Hanuman pays his respects.
Rama and the monkey chiefs.
Building a Rama Setu Bridge to Lanka.

Synopsis

Bala Kanda

Pictorial depiction of the birth of the four sons of Dasharatha.

Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and, anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice known as putra-kameshti yagya.[30] As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra.[31][32] These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the god Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods,and who could only be destroyed by a mortal.[33] The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16-years-old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra, and proceed to destroy the demons.[34]

Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of god". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow.[35] Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was of marriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which included a contest. The king was in possession of an immensely heavy bow, presented to him by the god Shiva: whoever could wield the bow could marry Sita. The sage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama is able to wield the bow and, when he draws the string, it breaks. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughan to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.[34]

Ayodhya Kanda

Bharata asks for Rama's paduka (footwear).

After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support.[36][37] On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands.[38] Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story.[39] He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says,"the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me."[40] After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away.[41] Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals,and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.[38][41]

Aranya Kanda

Ravana fights Jatayu as he carries off the kidnapped Sita. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and, failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organises an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates Khara and his demons.[42]

When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Lord Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana rekha, around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and is then forcibly carried away by the evil Ravana.[42][43]

Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses.[41] Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her.[44] During their search, they meet the demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.[45][46]

Kishkindha Kanda

A stone bas relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia depicts the combat between Vali and Sugriva (middle). To the right, Rama fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying.
Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.

The kishkindha kanda is set in the monkey citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatest of monkey heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of kishkindha.[47] Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.[48] However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in debauchery. The clever monkey queen Tara, second wife of Sugriva (initially wife of Vali), calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the monkey citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west.[49] The southern search party under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati, Who is the elder brother of Jatayu, that Sita was taken to Lanka.[49][50]

Sundara Kanda

Main article: Sundara Kanda

The sundara kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana[51] and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures.[47] After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores the demon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in ashoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allow herself to be touched by a male other than her husband. She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.[47]

Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings, and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and, leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.[47][52]

Lanka kanda

The Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, by Sahibdin. It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left, blue figure) fighting Ravana—the demon-king of the Lanka—to save Rama's kidnapped wife, Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left. Trisiras is beheaded by Hanuman, the monkey-companion of Rama.

Also known as Yudhdha kand, this book describes the battle between the army of Rama, constructed with the help of Sugriva, and Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The monkeys named Nala and Nila construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the ocean, and the princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy battle ensues and Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.[53]

On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo an "agni pariksha" (test of fire) to prove her purity, as he wants to get rid of the rumours surrounding Sita's purity. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity.[54] The episode of agni pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.[55] The above version is from Valmiki Ramayana. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.[53] This is the beginning of Ram Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals.

Uttara Kanda

Sita in the hermitage of Valmiki.

The uttara kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki[11] and concerns the final years of Rama, Sita, and Rama's brothers. After being crowned king, many years passed pleasantly with Sita. However, despite the agni pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumours about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya.[56] Rama yields to public opinion and reluctantly banishes Sita to the forest, where the sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who become pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.

Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, which the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grief-stricken, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it.[56][57] Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger from the gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial abode.[54]

Influence on culture and art

A Ramlila actor wears the traditional attire of Ravana.

One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably the Kambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, the Telugu-language Molla Ramayanam by poetess Molla and Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana, and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.

The Ramayana became popular in southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.

The Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, most notably by the Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen in 1972. The epic tale was picturized on canvas in epic proportions measuring 72 x 453 cm in 9 panels. The painting depicts three prolific parts of the epic, namely The Abduction of Sita, Hanuman visits Sita and Hanuman Burns Lanka. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.

Variant versions

The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of south-east Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.[58]

India

The 7th century CE "bhatti's poem" Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.[59]

There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. A Telugu version, Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 14th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early-14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali.[60] Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krta Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittivas in the 14th century; in Oriya by Balarama das in the 16th century; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by Tunccattu Ezhuttaccan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada.

There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali.

Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as mappila ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally.[58] In mappila ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama which is `laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.[58]

Buddhist version

In the Buddhist variant of Ramayana, Dasaratha was the king of Benares and not Ayodhya. According to Romila Thapar: "Rama and Lakshmana were the siblings born to the first wife of Dasaratha. To protect his children from his second wife, the king sent the three in exile to the Himalayas. Twelve years later, the trio came back to the kingdom with Rama and Sita ruling as consorts. The abduction of Sita did not find a place in this version."[61]

Sikh version

In Guru Granth Sahib, there is description of two types of Ramayana. One is spiritual Ramayana which is actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravan is ego, Seeta is budhi (intellect), Rama is inner soul and Laxman is mann (attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in existence of dasavtara who were kings of their times which tried their best to bring revolution in the world. King Ramchandra was one of those and it is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states:

ਹੁਕਮਿ ਉਪਾਏ ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰਾ॥
हुकमि उपाए दस अउतारा॥
By hukam (supreme command), he created his ten incarnations,[62]

This version of Ramayana was written by Guru Gobind Singh, which is part of Dasam Granth. In dasam granth, Guru Gobind Singh also explained that he does not believe Ramchandra as a God. He is equating Ramchandra with a common man by calling him insect, though he calls himself insect, too.

He also said that the almighty, invisible, all prevailing God created millions of Ramas, Shivas, Vishnus, Prophets and Brahmas. But they too were caught in the noose of death (KAAL)(Transmigration of soul).

Jain version

Further information: Salakapurusa

Jain version of Ramayana can be found in the various Jain agamas like Padmapurana (story of Padmaja & Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious person's), Sanghadasa's Vasudevahindi and Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara.[63] According to Jain cosmology,every half time cycle has nine set's of Balarama, Vasudeva and prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth baladeva, vasudeva, and prativasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the jinacharitra (lives of the jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3–4th century BCE).[64]

In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hindu version.[65] In the end, Rama who led an upright life renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to hell.[66] However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.[67]

The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma, and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he became to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna.[68] Furthermore,not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to Jain version, Rama had four chief-queen's: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama.Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future tirthankara of next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Ganadhara.[69]

In Nepal

Besides being the site of discovery of the oldest surviving manuscript of Ramayana,[70] Nepal gave rise to two regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by Bhanubhakta Acharya, is considered the first epic of Nepali language, while the other, written by Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa was a foundational influence in the renaissance of that language.[71]

The Ramayana written by Bhanubhakta Acharya is one of the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the 'Ramayana' and its tale, originally written in Sanskrit Language was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called 'Aadi Kavi' or 'The Pioneering Poet'.[72]

Southeast Asian versions

Hanuman discovers Sita in her captivity in Lanka, as depicted in Balinese dance.
Lakshmana, Rama and Sita during their exile in Dandaka Forest depicted in Javanese dance.

Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma.[73] In many Malay language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.

The Thai retelling of the tale—the Ramakien—is popularly expressed in traditional regional dance theatre.
Rama (Yama) and Sita (me thida) in Yama Zatdaw, the Burmese version of the Ramayana.

The Cambodian version of Ramayana, the Reamker, is the most famous story of Khmer literature since the Funan era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and show's the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original Ramayana, including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theater known as lakhorn luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and Angkor wat.

Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien (thai:รามเกียรติ์.,from Sanskrit rāmakīrti,"glory of Rama") is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakan and montho). Vibhisana (phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. Ravana has her thrown into the water, but is later rescued by Janaka (chanok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

Other southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia), Maharadia Lawana and Darangen of Mindanao (Philippines), and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar.

Theological significance

Deities Sita (far right), Rama (center), Lakshmana (far left), and Hanuman (below seated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford, England

Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace their journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integral part of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener.

According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of the god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth.

Media

A number of movies and television serials have been produced based upon the Ramayana.

Stage

Starting in 1978, and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, the Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville,[74] California. Currently, it is the largest yearly, Western version of the epic being performed. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA.[75] Baba Hari Dass has thought acting arts, costume-attire design, masks making, and choreography to bring alive characters of Sri Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Lakshmana, Shiva, Parvati, Vibhishan, Jatayu, Sugriva, Surpanakha, Ravana and his rakshasa court, Meghnaad, Kumbhakarna, and the army of monkeys and demons.

Movies

Plays

Serials (TV series)

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Datta, Amaresh (1 January 2006). "The encyclopaedia of Indian literature (volume two) (devraj to Jyoti)". ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
  2. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000,"vinoth" p.Xiii.
  3. ↑ Dutt 2004, p.198.
  4. ↑ Brockington 2003
  5. ↑ Prabhavananda 1979, p.81
  6. ↑ Goldman 1990, p. 29.
  7. ↑ History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D., Radhey Shyam Chaurasiya p. 38: "the Kernel of the Ramayana was composed before 500 B.C. while the more recent portion were not probably added till the 2nd century B.C. and later."
  8. ↑ Goldman 1990, p. 45.
  9. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000,p.Xxi.
  10. ↑ Goldman 1990, p. 4-6, 83.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Sundararajan 1989, p. 106
  12. ↑ Goldman 1990, p. 4-6.
  13. ↑ Dutt 2004, p. 191.
  14. ↑ Raghunathan,n. (trans.),Srimad Valmiki Ramayana.
  15. ↑ Arya, R.P. (ed.),Ramayan of valmiki.
  16. ↑ Goldman, Robert p.,The Ramayana of Valmiki:an epic of ancient India p. 23.
  17. ↑ M. Witzel, The Vedas and the epics: some comparative notes on persons, lineages, geography, and grammar. In: P. Koskikallio (ed.) Epics, Khilas and Puranas: Continuities and Ruptures. Proceedings of the third dubrovnik international conference on the Sanskrit epics and puranas. September 2002. Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Sciences and the Arts 2005:21–80.
  18. ↑ Indian wisdom Or examples of the religious, philosophical, and ethical doctrines of the Hindus, by Monier Williams, published 2006.
  19. ↑ Valmiki Ramayana shlok's No.8, 9, 10
  20. ↑ Source:Bhatnagar,pushkar:dating the era of lord Ram, quoted on page 43, in book 'Rama setu' symbol of national unity, by Dr. Subramanian swamy.
  21. ↑ In the Vedas sita means furrow relating to a goddess of agriculture. – S.S.S.N.Murty, a note on the Ramayana.
  22. ↑ Goldman, Robert P.,The Ramayana of Valmiki:an epic of ancient India. P 24
  23. ↑
  24. ↑ Goldman, Robert P.,The Ramayana of Valmiki:an epic of ancient India. P.15-16
  25. ↑ Goldman,Robert p.,The Ramayana of Valmiki:an epic of ancient India p.28
  26. ↑ See Sankalia, H.D., Ramayana: myth or reality, New Delhi,1963
  27. ↑ Basham, A.L.,The Wonder that was India, London,1956, p. 303.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 Keshavadas 1988, p.23
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Menon, Ramesh (2003).The Ramayana-A modern retelling of the great Indian Epic.North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-695-0
  30. ↑ Keshavadas 1988, p.27
  31. ↑ Keshavadas 1988, p.29
  32. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000, p.16
  33. ↑ Goldman 1990, p.7 "These sons [...] are infused with varying portions of the essence of the great lord Vishnu who has agreed to be born as a man in order to destroy a violent and otherwise invincible demon, the mighty Rakshasa Ravana who has been oppressing the gods, for by the terms of a boon that he has received, the demon can be destroyed only by a mortal."
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Goldman 1990, p.7
  35. ↑ Bhattacharji 1998, p.73
  36. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000, pp.60–61
  37. ↑ Prabhavananda 1979, p.82
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Goldman 1990, p.8
  39. ↑ Brockington 2003, p.117
  40. ↑ Keshavadas 1988, pp.69–70
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Prabhavananda 1979, p.83
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Goldman 1990, p.9
  43. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000, p.166-168
  44. ↑ Keshavadas 1988, pp.112–115
  45. ↑ Keshavadas 1988, pp.121–123
  46. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000, p.183-184
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 Goldman 1990, p.10
  48. ↑ Buck & van Nooten 2000, p.197
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Goldman 1994, p.4
  50. ↑ Kishore 1995, pp.84–88
  51. ↑ Goldman 1996, p. 3
  52. ↑ Goldman 1996, p. 4
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Goldman 1990, pp. 11–12
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Prabhavananda 1979, p.84
  55. ↑ Rajagopal, Arvind (2001). Politics after television. Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-0-521-64839-4.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Goldman 1990, p.13
  57. ↑ Dutt 2002, "Aswa-medha." p.146
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 "A different song.". The Hindu. 12 August 2005. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
  59. ↑ Fallon 2009
  60. ↑ Saikia, Nagen (1997) "Medieval Assamese Literature" in Medieval Indian Literature (ed.Paniker,K.Ayyappa) pp=6–7.
  61. ↑ Romila Thapar. (17 February 2010). "Ramayana version's reflect different period perspectives.". The hindu. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
  62. ↑ Page 1037, line 5, Guru Nanak.
  63. ↑ Roy, Ashim kumar. (1984). A history of the jainas. New Delhi: Gitanjali Pub. House. p. 20. OCLC 11604851.
  64. ↑ Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected papers on Jaina studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-1691-9. p. 377
  65. ↑ Jaini, Padmanabh (1998). The jaina path of purification. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1578-5. p.305
  66. ↑ Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected paper's on jaina studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-1691-9. p. 359
  67. ↑ Mansi choksi & hemali chhapia. (3 July 2010). "Now,meet ravan the saint.". The Times of India. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
  68. ↑ Roy, Ashim kumar. (1984). A history of the jaina's. New Delhi: Gitanjali Pub. House. pp. 20–21. OCLC 11604851.
  69. ↑ Helen, Johnson (2009) [1931]. Muni samvegayashvijay maharaj., ed. Trisastiśalākāpurusacaritra of hemacandra:the jain saga. (in English. Trans. From Prakrit). Part II. Baroda: Oriental Institute. ISBN 978-81-908157-0-3. refer story of Munisuvrata
  70. ↑ Goldman 1990, p. 83.
  71. ↑ Rohman 2009, p. 434.
  72. ↑ "Significance of Bhanu Jayanti". Nepalibyets.com. Retrieved 2014-09-11.
  73. ↑ Effect of Ramayana on various cultures And civilisation's. P. ?
  74. ↑ "Ramayana!".
  75. ↑ Jha, Ritu (July 8, 2011). "California school celebrates Ramayan for 33 years". rediff News,. rediff.com. Retrieved Aug 3, 2014.
  76. ↑ Shashi Tharoor. "Epic Interpretations".

References

Further reading

Translations

External links

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