Pulpitis

Pulpitis
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 K04.0
ICD-9 522.0
DiseasesDB 29367
MeSH D011671

Pulpitis is inflammation of dental pulp tissue. The pulp contains the blood vessels the nerves and connective tissue inside a tooth and provides the tooth’s blood and nutrients. Pulpitis is mainly caused by bacteria infection which itself is a secondary development of caries (tooth decay). It manifests itself in the form of a toothache. [1]

Symptoms

Increased sensitivity to stimuli, specifically hot and cold, is a common symptom of pulpitis. A prolonged throbbing pain may be associated with the disease.[2] However, pulpitis can also occur without any pain.[3]

Causes

Pulpitis may be caused by dental caries that penetrate through the enamel and dentin to reach the pulp, or it may be a result of trauma, such as thermal insult from repeated dental procedures.

Inflammation is commonly associated with a bacterial infection but can also be due to other insults such as repetitive trauma or in rare cases periodontitis. In the case of penetrating decay, the pulp chamber is no longer sealed off from the environment of the oral cavity.[4]

When the pulp becomes inflamed, pressure begins to build up in the pulp cavity, exerting pressure on the nerve of the tooth and the surrounding tissues. Pressure from inflammation can cause mild to extreme pain, depending upon the severity of the inflammation and the body's response. Unlike other parts of the body where pressure can dissipate through the surrounding soft tissues, the pulp cavity is very different. It is surrounded by dentin, a hard tissue that does not allow for pressure dissipation, so increased blood flow, a hallmark of inflammation, will cause pain.[5]

Pulpitis can often create so much pressure on the tooth nerve that the individual will have trouble locating the source of the pain, confusing it with neighboring teeth, called referred pain. The pulp cavity inherently provides the body with an immune system response challenge, which makes it very difficult for a bacterial infection to be eliminated.[6]

If the teeth are denervated, this can lead to irreversible pulpitis, depending on the area, rate of infection, and length of injury. This is why people who have lost their dental innervation have a reduced healing ability and increased rate of tooth injury. Thus, as people age, their gradual loss of innervation leads to pulpitis.[7]

Responses

Immune/inflammatory response

In the pulp, just as in other areas of the body, inflammation can be present. Inflammation of the pulp does not take place only when the bacteria in the decay have reached the pulp. Bacterial products may reach the pulp much earlier and begin the inflammatory response. The inflammation may be acute or chronic because just like other tissues in the body, the pulp will react to irritants with innate and/or adaptive immune responses.[8][9]

Innate immunity in the pulp is not specific but uses receptors to recognize molecular patterns common to microbes to initiate bacterial killing (phagocytosis). The components of the innate response of the dentin/pulp complex to caries include at least the following six: (1) outward flow of dentinal fluid; (2) odontoblasts; (3) neuropeptides and neurogenic inflammation; (4) innate immune cells, including immature dendritic cells (DCs), natural killer (NK) cells, and T cells, as well as (5) their cytokines and (6) chemokines. Although the first two items are not classic components of innate immunity, they are uniquely involved in the initial inflammatory response to caries.[8]

Odontoblasts, (the cells that form dentin) have cellular processes that extend into dentinal tubules and are the first to encounter the caries bacterial antigens. They express low levels of interleukin 8 (IL-8) and genes related to chemokines and chemokine receptors. The odontoblasts have been shown to attract immature dendritic cells.[8]

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a heterogeneous leukocyte (white blood cell) population. DCs in healthy peripheral tissues (steady state) are in an immature state. The cells are capable of sensing microbes as well as antigen capture and processing capabilities. A rapid accumulation of pulpal DCs has been observed beneath cavity preparations, and an increased number of DCs accumulated under caries. Immature DCs are therefore considered to be part of the innate phase of pulpal immune response.[8]

Persistent infection leads to the activation of adaptive immunity. A transition to an adaptive immune response will take place in the dental pulp as the caries and bacteria approach the pulp. Antigens are recognized individually and lines of lymphocytes are developed to produce specific antibodies which attach to the recognized cells and initiate their destruction. Phagocytes remove the remains. B cells and T cells are the major lymphocytes involved.[10]

A variety of cytokines have been observed in the pulp. Patients with symptomatic and asymptomatic irreversible pulpitis have been shown to have an almost 23-fold increase in the cytokine IL-8 in the pulp. Cytokines in the pulp interact with each other. The ultimate effect on pulpal inflammation and healing is dependent upon the integrated actions of these inflammatory mediators.[11]

In addition to the lymphocytes, macrophages also provide defense against certain intracellular pathogens. Activated macrophages can function as class II antigen-presenting cells, similar to pulpal dendritic and B cells. In addition, activated macrophages secrete many inflammatory mediators.[12]

Macrophages in the pulp become activated after receiving two signals. The first is a priming stimulus and the second is an activating signal. The priming stimulus is secreted by activated T-helper cells. The activating stimulus may include bacterial lipopolysaccharides, muramyl dipeptide, and other chemical mediators.[12]

Macrophages are professional phagocytes in innate immune responses. Activated macrophages are effective killers that eliminate pathogens in both innate and adaptive immune responses, and are also important in tissue homeostasis, through the clearance of senescent cells, and in remodeling and repair of tissue after inflammation. The number of macrophages increases with the progression of caries and is always higher than that of DCs at all stages of the caries invasion.[11]

Neurological responses

According to the Brännström's hydrodynamic theory, activated nociceptors from fluid movement and other irritants through the patent dentine tubules result in pulp pain. Unmyelinated, slow conducting C-fibers aid in feeling a slowset, burning pain.[13] According to neuronal studies, 70-80% of pulpal axons are unmyelinated.[14] Highly myelinated Aδ-fibers, which allow for fast conduction, are responsible for the sharp, shooting paining.[13]

Thus, the stimulus intensities are based on various fibers. Fast-conducting Aβ and Aδ-fibers provide the lowest stimulus intensities (typically referred to as prepain sensations), and those sensations eventually receive higher stimulation levels. The dull aches are associated with C-fibers and slow Aδ-fibers. As inflammation intensifies, the A-fibers are increasingly activated. C-fiber innervation and Aδ-fibers are polymodal receptors that are sensitive to capsaicin and inflammatory mediators.[7]

The pain mechanisms associated with pulpitis are similar to those of the rest of the body (i.e. receptors, intracellular signaling, transmitters, etc.). The inflammatory mediators act on specific receptors relating to nociceptive neurons, leading to the production of second messengers and activation of phospholipases and protein kinases. The second messengers regulate receptors ion channels that deal with sensitization. The ion channels open based on pain stimuli propagating action potentials in sensory neurons.[15]

In order for excitability and conduction to occur, voltage-gated sodium channels must be activated. Changes in sodium channel (NaCH) expression occur after inflammatory lesions, which may generate different pain states seen when neuronal fibers are activated. Studies have been done on major NaCh isoforms to examine expression patterns. Nav1.6 nodal accumulations do not vary in size or immunofluorescence staining activity in typical or atypical nodal sites; however, the proportion of typical nodal sites decreases and increase in atypical nodes in painful tooth samples compared to normal tooth samples. Nav1.7 has an increased expression in typical and atypical nodal sites in painful samples. As a result, an increased co-expression of multiple isoforms at demyelinating nodal sites in painful dental pulp. This isoforms of sodium channels may be a main factor in pain sensations due to their production of axonal excitability properties.[16]

Neuropeptides are increasingly being researched for having a role in molecular mechanisms involved with pain, including ion channels and inflammation. Substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide produced by capsaicin neuron cell bodies (localized in trigeminal ganglia and dorsal root) and plays a major role in dental pain and inflammation. Other peptides include cGRP, galanin, somatostatin, and neurokinin A-B. The biological effects of SP are expressed by the binding of specific G protein-coupled NK receptors. Interaction with SP receptors induces vasodilation and allows for plasma extravasation and mastocyte degranulation. SP is highly expressed in dental pulp and dentin. When pain, thermal, and/or chemical stimulation is present, SP production and release increases. Current studies focus on whether controlling Substance P expression may control tooth pain.[15]

In addition, dental caries are more likely to develop pulpitis due to less time for the dental pulp to react and protect itself by occluding the dentinal tubules.[13] Based on the tooth injury, sensory nerve fibers react to pulpitis by growing terminal branches into the adjacent surviving pulp, which also changes the cytochemical phenotype. This neural growth typically lasts few a few days and function and form is retained.[7] Thus, pain is poorly localized, and the level of pain stemming from pulpitis varies based on severity, quality, duration, onset, trigger.

As caries turn into dentin, the number of permeable dentinal tubules correlates with the degree of pain. Intrapulp pressure have an effect on the sensory nerves of varying diameters: blocking larger diameter Aδ-fibres and activating smaller C-fibers. Under hypxoic environments and pulp degeneration (symptom of pulpitis), C-fibers may still function.[13] Once reparative dentin forms, odontoblasts associated with the dentin change, and the pulpal fibroblasts lose p75 expression, which is a neurotrophin receptor.[7]

Cells involved in immune response

Cell Type Function
Mast Cells Rapid release of granules rich in histamine and heparin, along with various hormonal mediators and chemokines
Macrophages Phagocytic leukocytes that engulf and destroy bacteria
Neutrophils Contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi
Dendritic Cells Antigen presentation
Basophils Release histamine, which is important in allergic reactions and defense against parasites.
Eosinophils Secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing bacteria and parasites
Natural Killer Cells Destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells

Pulp sensibility tests

Pulp sensibility tests are routinely used in the diagnosis of dental disease. There are 2 general types:

Possible explanations for false-positives include:

Studies have indicated that there is little correlation between histopathological status of the pulp and clinical information. A negative EPT response showed localized necrosis in 25.7% of cases and 72% of cases. Thus, 97.7% of cases with a negative response to EPT indicated that a root canal treatment should be carried out.[18]

Treatment

Once the pulp has become inflamed, the tooth can be diagnostically divided into two categories.

Reversible pulpitis

This is the condition where the pulp is inflamed and is actively responding to an irritant. This may include a carious lesion that has not reached the pulp.

Symptoms include transient pain or sensitivity resulting from many stimuli, notably hot, cold, sweet,[19] water and touch. The pulp is still considered to be vital. This means that once the irritant is eliminated, usually by removal of decay and the placement of a restoration, that the pulp will return to its normal, healthy state.[6]

Irreversible pulpitis

This is the condition where the pulp is irreversibly damaged. The pulp can not recover from the insult and damage. For example, decay that has reached the pulp of the tooth introduces bacteria into the pulp. The pulp is still alive, but the introduction of bacteria into the pulp will not allow the pulp to heal and it will ultimately result in necrosis, or death, of the pulp tissue.[6]

Symptoms associated with irreversible pulpitis may include dull aching, pain from hot or cold (though cold may actually provide relief) lingering pain after removal of a stimulus, spontaneous pain, or referred pain.[19][20]

Clinical signs may include reduced response to electronic pulp testing and painful response to thermal stimuli.[19] Today electronic pulp testers are rarely used for diagnosis of the reversibility of pulpitis due to their unreliable nature. Instead they should only be used to test the vitality of teeth.

The pulp of a tooth with irreversible pulpitis may not be left alone to heal. That is at least the general viewpoint of the dental profession, and not every dentist would agree that a dead tooth must be treated. No statistics are known but it is possible to have a trouble-free tooth after irreversible pulpitis, albeit a dead tooth. The tooth may be endodontically treated whereby the pulp is removed and replaced by gutta percha. An alternative is extraction of the tooth. This may be required if there is insufficient coronal tissue remaining for restoration once the root canal therapy has been completed.[6]

References

  1. ↑ Pulpitis - Overview
  2. ↑ Andersen J. USA DMD. What's causing my toothache? ASDA Member. Jan. 2015
  3. ↑ Michaelson PL. Holland GR. Is pulpitis painful? International Endodontic Journal. 35:829-32. Oct. 2002.
  4. ↑ Kakehashi S, Stanley HR, Fitzgerald RJ. The effects of surgical exposures of dental pulps ingerm-free and conventional laboratory rats. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1965:20:340-9.
  5. ↑ Hargreaves, KM. Goodis, HE. Seltzer and Bender's Dental Pulp. Quintessence, 2002.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Torabinejad, M. Walton, RE. Endodntics: Principles and Practice. 4th Edition. Elsevier Health Sciences, March 2008.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Byers, M. R., Suzuki, H. and Maeda, T. (2003), Dental neuroplasticity, neuro-pulpal interactions, and nerve regeneration. Microsc. Res. Tech., 60: 503–515.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Hahn CL. Liewehr FR. Innate immune responses of the dental pulp to caries. Journal of Endodontics. 33:643-51, 2007 Jun.
  9. ↑ Hahn CL. Liewehr FR. Relationships between caries bacteria, host responses, and clinical signs and symptoms of pulpitis. Journal of Endodontics. 33:213-9, 2007 Mar.
  10. ↑ Hahn,Cl. Liewher Fr.Update on the adaptive immune responses of the dental pulp. Journal of Endodontics. 33:773-81. 2007 Jul.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hahn, Cl. Liewher Fr. Update on the adaptive immune responses of the dental pulp. Journal of Endodontics. 33:773-81. 2007 Jul.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hargreaves, KM. Goodis, HE. Seltzer and Bender's Dental Pulp. Quintessence, 2002
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Eugene Chen and Paul V. Abbott, "Dental Pulp Testing: A Review," International Journal of Dentistry, vol. 2009, Article ID 365785, 12 pages, 2009.
  14. ↑ Närhi M, Jyväsjärvi E, Virtanen A, Huopaniemi T, Ngassapa D, Hirvonen T. Role of intradental A- and C-type nerve fibres in dental pain mechanisms. Proc Finn Dent Soc. 1992;88 Suppl 1:507-16. Review.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Paola Sacerdote and Luca Levrini, "Peripheral Mechanisms of Dental Pain: The Role of Substance P," Mediators of Inflammation, vol. 2012, Article ID 951920, 6 pages, 2012.
  16. ↑ Michael A Henry, et al, Unmyelinated nerve fibers in the human dental pulp express markers for myelinated fibers and show sodium channel accumulations, Neuroscience, Volume 169, Issue 4, 15 September 2010, Pages 1881-1887, ISSN 0306-4522, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.044.
  17. ↑ Eugene Chen and Paul V. Abbott, "Dental Pulp Testing: A Review," International Journal of Dentistry, vol. 2009, Article ID 365785, 12 pages, 2009.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Lin, J. and Chandler, N. P. (2008), Electric pulp testing: a review. International Endodontic Journal, 41: 365–374.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 David A. Mitchell, Laura Mitchell: Oxford Handbook of clinical dentistry. 4th Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005. p260
  20. ↑ American Association of Endodontists www.aae.org