Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indo-Iranic[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, the Dardic languages and the Nuristani languages.
Descriptive phonology
Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments
|
Labial |
Coronal |
Palatal |
Velar |
Laryngeal |
| dental/
alveolar |
post-
alveolar |
first |
second |
| Plosive |
voiceless |
*p |
*t |
|
*ĉ |
*č |
*k |
|
| voiced |
*b |
*d |
|
*ĵ |
*ǰ |
*g |
|
| aspirated |
*bʰ |
*dʰ |
|
*ĵʰ |
*ǰʰ |
*gʰ |
|
| Fricative |
voiceless |
|
*s |
*š |
|
|
|
*H |
| voiced |
|
(*z) |
(*ž) |
|
|
|
|
| Nasal |
*m |
*n |
|
|
|
|
|
| Liquid |
|
*l |
*r *r̥ |
|
|
|
|
| Semivowel |
|
|
|
|
*y |
*w |
|
PII vowel segments
| High |
*i *ī *u *ū |
| Low |
*a *ā |
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
Two palatal series
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[2] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the "primary"/"first" series (*ĉ *ĵ *ĵʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the "second(ary)" series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars *k⁽ʷ⁾ *g⁽ʷ⁾ *gʰ⁽ʷ⁾ in palatalizing contexts).
The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[3][4]
| PII |
Sanskrit |
Proto-Iranian |
Avestan |
Old Persian |
Nuristani |
| *ĉ |
ś ([ɕ]) |
*ts |
s |
θ |
ċ ([ts]) / š |
| *ĵ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*dz |
z |
d |
j ([dz]) / z |
| *ĵʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
| *č |
c |
*č |
č |
č |
č |
| *ǰ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ / ž |
| *ǰʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
Laryngeal
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.[5]
Accent
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[6]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
Historical phonology
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
- The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[7]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *ĝónu |
*ĵā́nu |
jā́nu |
zānu |
genu |
"knee" |
| *ĝʰéi-mn̥ |
*ĵʰimá- |
himá- |
zima- |
hiems |
"winter" / "snow" |
| *kʷó- |
*ká- |
ká- |
kō |
quis |
"who?, what?" |
| *gʷou- |
*gau- |
go |
gau- |
bos, bovis |
"cow" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
formus |
"warmth, heat" |
- The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *wĺ̥kʷo- |
*wŕ̥ka- |
*vŕ̥ka- |
vəhrka- |
lupus |
"wolf" |
- The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *mn̥tó- |
*matá |
matá- |
|
mens, mentis |
"thinking" |
- Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.[9]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ubʰto- |
*ubdʰa- |
|
ubdaēna |
"woven" / "made of woven material" |
| *urdʰto- |
*urdzdʰa- |
vr̥ddʰá- |
vrzda- |
"complete/mature" |
| *augʰ-tá- |
*augdʰá- |
*óhate |
*augda |
"he said" |
- The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *wers- |
*warš- |
varṣman- |
|
"summit" |
| *pr̥sto- |
*pr̥šta- |
pr̥ṣṭhá- |
paršta |
"back" / "backbone" |
| *ǵeus- |
*ĵauš- |
joṣati |
zaošō |
"taste" |
| *kʷsep- |
*kšap- (< *ksep) |
kṣāp |
xšap |
"darkness" |
| *wis- |
*wiš- |
viṣa- |
viša- |
"poison" |
| *nisdo- |
*nižda- |
nīḍa- |
|
"nest" |
- Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[10]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *h₂ok̂tṓ |
*oĉtṓ |
*aštā́ |
aṣṭaú |
ašta |
"eight" |
| *h₃mr̥ĝt- |
*mr̥ĵd- |
*mr̥žd- |
mr̥ḍīká- |
mərəžḍīka |
"wiped away" / "pardon" |
| *uĝʰtó- |
*uĵʰtó- |
*uždʰá- |
ūḍhá- |
|
"carried" |
- The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.[11]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *h₂ék̂s- |
*áĉs- |
*ášš- |
ákṣa- |
aši- |
axis |
"shoulder" / "axle" |
- The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[9]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *kʷe |
*ke |
*ča |
ca |
ča |
"and" |
| *gʷíh₃weti |
*gíh₃weti |
*ǰī́wati |
jī́vati |
jvaiti |
"lives" |
| *gʷʰénti |
*gʰénti |
*ǰʰánti |
hánti |
jainti |
"slays" |
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *deh₃tór-m |
*deh₃tṓr-m |
*dātā́ram |
dātā́ram |
dātāram |
dator |
"giver" (acc. sg.) |
- The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *kʷe |
*ča (< *če) |
ca |
ča |
"and" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
"heat" |
| *bʰréh₂tēr |
*bʰrā́tār |
bhrā́tā |
brātā |
"brother" |
| *wōkʷs |
*wākš |
vāk |
vāxš |
"voice" |
- In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[13][14]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ph₂trei |
*pitrai |
pitre |
piθrai |
"father" (dative singular) |
- Following a consonant and word-final
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *-medʰh₂ |
*-madʰi |
-mahi |
-madi |
(1st person plural middle ending) |
- The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[15]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ph₂tér |
*pHtā́ |
pitā́ |
ptā |
"father" (nominative singular) |
- According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[16]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *bʰeh₂g- |
*bʰag- ( < *bʰaHg- ) |
bʰag- |
baxša |
"distribute" |
Subsequent sound changes
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[17]
| PIE | OInd/VS | Av | PIE | OInd/VS | Av
|
|---|
| *p | > | p | p | *ph̥atēr "father" | pitā́ "father" | pitar- "father"
|
| *b | > | b | b | *bel- "strong" | bálam "strength" | -
|
| *bh | > | bh | b | *bhréhatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother
|
| *t | > | t | t | *tuhxóm "thou" | tuvám "thou" | tvəm "thou"
|
| *d | > | d | d | *doru "wood" | dā́ru "wood" | dāru- "wood"
|
| *dh | > | dh | d | *dhohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain"
|
| *k̂ | > | ś | s | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten"
|
| *ĝ | > | j | z | *ĝónu "knee" | jā́nu "knee" | zānu- "knee"
|
| *ĝh | > | h | z | *ĝhimós "cold" | himá- "cold, frost" | zəmaka- "winterstorm"
|
| *k | > | k ~ c | x ~ č | *kruharós "bloody" | krūrá- "bloody" | xrūra- "bloody"
|
| | | | | *téket "may he run" | - | tačat̰ "may he run"
|
| *g | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *haéuges- "strength" | ójas- "strength" | aoǰah "strength"
|
| | | | | *haugrós "strong" | ugrá- "strong" | ugra- "strong"
|
| *gh | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *dl̥hxghós "long" | dīrghá- "long" | darəga- "long"
|
| | | | | *dlehxghistos "longest" | - | draǰišta- "longest"
|
| *kw | > | k ~ c | k ~ č | *kwós "who" | káḥ "who" | kō "who"
|
| | | | | *kwe "and" | ca "and" | ́ča "and"
|
| *gw | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *gwou- "cow" | gav- "cow" | gau- "cow"
|
| | | | | *gwih3uós "alive" | jīvá- "alive" | OPer: ǰīva
- "living" |
| *gwh | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *gwhnénti "strike" (pl.) | ghnánti "strike" (pl.) | -
|
| | | | | *gwhénti "strikes" | hánti "strikes" | ǰainti "strikes"
|
| *s | > | s | s ~ h | *septm̥ "seven" | saptá "seven" | hapta "seven"
|
| | | | | *asti "is" | asti "is" | asti "is"
|
| *i̥ | > | y | y | *i̥ugóm "yoke" | yuga'm "yoke" | yuga- "yoke"
|
| *u̥ | > | v | v | *u̥éĝheti "drives, rides" | váhati "drives" | vazaiti "travels"
|
| *m | > | m | m | *méhatēr "mother" | mātár- "mother" | mātar- "mother"
|
| *n | > | n | n | *nos "us" | nas "us" | nō "us"
|
| *l | > | l ~ r | r | *kweleti "moves" | carati "moves" | caraiti "moves"
|
| *r | > | r | r | *bhrehatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother
|
| *n̥ | > | a | a | *n̥- "un-" | a- "un-" | a- "un-"
|
| *m̥ | > | a | a | *k̂m̥tóm "hundred" | s'atám "hundred" | satəm "hundred"
|
| *l̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *u̥l̥kwos "wolf" | vĺ̥ka- "wolf" | vəhrka- "wolf"
|
| *r̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *k̂r̥d- "heart" | hŕ̥d- "heart" | zərəd- "heart"
|
| *i | > | i | i | *linékwti "leaves" | riṇákti "leaves" | irinaxti "releases"
|
| *e | > | a | a | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten"
|
| *ē | > | ā | ā | *hanḗr "man" | nā "man" | nā "man"
|
| *a | > | a | a | *haéĝeti "drives" | ájati "drives" | azaiti "drives"
|
| *ā | > | ā | ā | *méhatēr "mother" | mātā́ "mother" | mātar- "mother"
|
| *o | > | a ~ ā | a ~ ā | *ĝómbhos "tooth, peg" | jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk" | -
|
| | | | | *ĝónu "knee" | jānu "knee" | zānu- "knee"
|
| *ō | > | ā | ā | *dhohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain"
|
| *u | > | u | u | *iugóm "yoke" | yugám "yoke" | yuga- "yoke"
|
| *ū | > | ū | ū | *mū́s "mouse" | mū́ṣ- "mouse" | NPer mūs "mouse"
|
| *h1 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h1ésti "is" | ásti "is" | asti "is"
|
| *h2 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h2r̥tk̂os "bear" | r̥'kṣa- "bear" | arəša- "bear"
|
| *h3 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h3ókws(i) "eye" | ákṣi "eye" | aši "eye"
|
| *h4 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h4órĝhis "testicle" | - | ərəzi- "testicle"
|
| Proto-Indo-Iranian | Old Iranian (OP, Av) | Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit |
|---|
| *aĉwa- ("horse") | Av, OP aspa | aśva |
| *bʰag- | OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") | bhag- (bhaga) |
| *bʰrātr- ("brother") | OP brātar | bhrātṛ |
| *bʰūmī ("earth", "land") | OP būmi | bhūmī |
| *martya ("mortal, "man") | OP martya | martya |
| *māsa ("moon") | OP māha | māsa |
| *wāsara ("early") | OP vāhara ("spring") | vāsara ("morning") |
| *ṛta ("truth") | Av aša, OP arta | ṛta |
| *draugʰ- ("falsehood") | Av druj, OP draug- | druh- |
| *sauma "pressed (juice)" | Av haoma | soma |
See also
References
- ↑ The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
by Peter Bellwood, Immanuel Ness
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 78-79
- ↑ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge,. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
- ↑ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
- ↑ Beekes (1988), p. 50
- ↑ Beekes, p. 55
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 74-75
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Fortson, p. 182
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Fortson, p. 181
- ↑ Burrow, p. 91
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 92-94
- ↑ Fortson, p. 183
- ↑ Beekes, pp, 85-86
- ↑ Lubotsky, p. 53
- ↑ get ref
- ↑ Beekes, pp. 88-89
- ↑ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
Bibliography
- Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08332-4.
- Burrow, T. (2001). The Sanskrit Language (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
- Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08835-0.
- Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
- Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).