Post-Imperial Mongolia

Post-Imperial Mongolia
ᠬᠦᠮᠠᠷᠳᠦ ᠥᠨ ᠥᠯᠥᠰ Mongol Uls
Nomadic empire
←   ← 1368–1691 →   →   →   →
Mongol states, XIV-XVII : 1. Post-Imperial Mongolia 2. Four Oirat 3. Moghulistan 4. Kara Del
Capital		Shangdu (1368–69) Yingchang (1369–70) Karakorum (1371–88)
Languages		Mongolian language
Religion		Shamanism later Buddhism
Government		Hereditary monarchy
Khagan		For the full list of Mongolian Emperors, see Mongol Khans.
Legislature		Yassa Customary rules[1]
Historical era		late middle ages
-	Expulsion of the Mongols from China to Mongolia	September 1368
-	The murder of Togus Temur marked the rise of the Oirats.	1388
-	Dayan Khan reunited the entire Mongol nation.	1483–1510
-	The death of the last Emperor Ligden Khan.	1634
-	Disestablished	1691
Area
-	1550[2]	5,000,000 km² (1,930,511 sq mi)
Today part of		Mongolia  China  Kazakhstan  Russia

History of Mongolia
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Prehistoric period Prehistory
Ancient period Slab Grave culture 1300–300 BC Proto-Mongols Prehistory–Antiquity Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD Xianbei state 93-234 Nirun Khaganate 330-555 Turkic Khaganate 555-744 Uyghur Khaganate 744-840 Khitan Empire 907-1125
Medieval period Mongol khanates IX-X Khamag Mongol X-1206 Mongol Empire 1206-1368 Yuan dynasty 1271-1368 Post-Imperial Mongolia 1368-1691 Four Oirat 1399-1634 Dzungar Khanate 1634-1758 Manchu rule 1691-1911
Modern period National Revolution 1911 Bogd Khaganate 1911-1924 People's Revolution 1921 Mongolian People's Republic 1924–1992 Democratic Revolution 1990 History of modern Mongolia 1990-present Mongolia 1992-present
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The Post-Imperial Mongolia (official name: Khalkha Mongolian: Mongol Uls, lit. Mongolian state or State of Mongolia) refers to Mongolia after the fall of Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368, until the emergence of the Manchu Qing dynasty in the 17th century. The Post-Imperial Mongolia began with the end of Mongol rule in China and withdrawal of the Mongols to Mongolia homeland, and this period was marked by factional struggles and the often only nominal role of the Great Khan.

Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited the entire Mongol nation in the 15th century.^[3] However, the former's distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs caused the decentralization of the imperial rule.^[4] Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligden Khan (1604–34).^[5]

The last sixty years of this period are marked by intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongolian society.

Name

The period is known by various names, including the Post-Imperial Mongolia or the Northern Yuan dynasty.^[6] The period before 1388, when Toghus Temur was murdered near the Tuul River, is sometimes referred to as the Northern Yuan,^[7] which is derived from the corresponding term in the Chinese language. It is also referred to as Mongol Khaganate, Mongolian Khaganate, Mongol Khanate or Mongolian Khanate^[8] in some modern sources,^[9] although these English terms can also refer to the Mongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty in the 13th and the 14th centuries. In Mongolian chronicles this period is also known as The Forty and the Four, meaning forty tumen eastern Mongols (Eastern Mongolia) and four tumen Western Mongols.^[10] Mongolian historiography consistently use the term "Mongolia of the 14-17th centuries", "Period of political disunion" and "Period of small khagans" rather than "Northern Yuan", "Northern Yuan period and "Post-imperial Mongolia" and Mongols stopped claiming the (Northern) Yuan since the 15th century.

History

Retreating to Mongolia (1368–1388)

The Mongols under Khubilai khagan (r. 1260–94) of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), a grandson of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–27), had conquered all of China by eliminating the Southern Song Dynasty in 1276 and destroyed the last Chinese resistance in 1279. The Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) ruled all of China for about a century. However, the Mongols dominated North China for more than 140 years, starting from the time when the Jurchen Jin Dynasty was annihilated. Nevertheless, when the Han Chinese people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the ensuing famines since the late 1340s, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of the support from people. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide turmoil. Eventually, Zhu Yuanzhang, a Chinese peasant established the Ming Dynasty in South China, and sent an army toward the Yuan capital Dadu (present-day Beijing) in 1368. Toghan Temür (r. 1333–70), the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to Shangdu (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) from Dadu in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng Dynasty (1368–1644). He had tried to regain Dadu, but eventually failed; he died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death.

The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming Dynasty in 1370, where the name Great Yuan was formally carried on, known as the Northern Yuan. The Northern Yuan rulers also buttressed their claim on China,^[11][12] and held tenaciously to the title of Emperor (or Great Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大元可汗)^[13] to resist the Ming who had by this time become the real ruler of China.

The Ming army pursued the Northern Yuan forces into Mongolia in 1372, but were defeated by the latter under Ayushridar (r. 1370–78) and his general Köke Temür (d. 1375). In 1375, Nahacu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan (Ayushridara) in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with aims of restoring the Mongols to power. Although he continued to hold southern Manchuria, Nahacu finally surrendered to the Ming Dynasty in 1387–88 after a successful diplomacy of the latter.^[14] The Yuan loyalists under Kublaid prince Basalawarmi (the Prince of Liang) in Yunnan and Guizhou were also destroyed by the Ming in 1381-82.^[15]

The Ming tried again towards Northern Yuan in 1380, ultimately winning a decisive victory over Northern Yuan forces around the Buir Lake region in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner and the Mongol capital Karakorum was sacked and destroyed.^[16] It effectively destroyed the power of the Khaan's Mongols for a long time, and allowed the Western Mongols to become supreme.^[17]

Field guns and hand cannons were used by the Northern Yuan army.

Rise of the Oirats (1388–1478)

In 1388, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Arik Böke (Tolui's son), instead of the descendants of Kublai Khan. After the death of his master Togus Temur (r. 1378–88), Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan, founded his own small state called Qara Del in Hami.^[18] The following century saw a succession of Chinggisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as "period of small kings" (Бага хаадын үе) for this period in modern historiography.^[19] On one side stood the Oirats (or Western Mongols) in the west against the Eastern Mongols. While the Oirats drew their side to the descendants of Arik Boke and other princes, Arugtai of the Asud supported the old Yuan khans. Another force was the House of Ogedei who briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule.

The Mongols split into three main groups: western Mongols, the Mongol groups under the Uriankhai in northeast, and the Eastern Mongols between the two. The Uriankhai and some Borjigin princes surrendered to the Ming Dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu.

Periods of conflict with the Ming Dynasty intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade. In 1402, Örüg Temür Khan (Guilichi) abolished the name Great Yuan;^[20] he was however defeated by Öljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r. 1403–12), the protege of Tamerlane (d. 1405) in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtai chingsang sided with Oljei Temur. Under Yongle (r. 1402–24) the Ming Dynasty intervened aggressively against any overly powerful leader, exacerbating the Mongol-Oirat conflict. In 1409 Oljei Temur and Arugtai crushed a Ming army, so that Yongle personally attacked the two on the Kherlen River. After the death of Oljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu (Mahmud) (d. 1417) enthroned an Arik-Bokid, Delbeg Khan in 1412. Although, the Ming encouraged the Oirats to fight against the Eastern Mongols, they withdrew their support when the Oirats became powerful. After 1417 Arugtai became dominant again, and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of the Greater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in the west of Baotou the next year. Arugtai's ally Adai Khan (r. 1425–38) made a last stand in Ejene before he was murdered too.

Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His son Esen (r. 1438–54) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his Chinggisid puppet khans, he drove back the Moghulistan monarchs and crushed the Three Guards, Qara Del and the Jurchen. In 1449 he captured the Ming Emperor Zhengtong, bringing about a wholescale collapse of the Ming northern defence line.^[21] Esen and his father ruled as taishis of Chinggisid khans but after executing the rebellious khan Tayisung (r. 1433–53) and his brother Agbarjin in 1453, Esen took the title khan himself.^[22] He was, however, soon overthrown by his chingsang Alag. His death broke up the role of the Oirats until they revived in the early 17th century.

From Esen's death to 1481 different warlords of the Kharchin, the Belguteids and Ordos fought over succession and had their Chinggisid Khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them the Uyghurs and they might have some ties with the Hami oasis.^[23] During his reign, Manduulun Khan (1475–78) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478.

Restoration (1479–1600)

Second reunion

Manduul's (Manduulun) young khatun Mandukhai proclaimed a boy named Batumongke. The new khan, as a descendant of Genghis Khan, took the title Dayan meaning the "Great Yuan", with reference to the Yuan dynasty.^[24] Mandukhai and Dayan Khan overthrew Oirat supremacy. At first the new rulers operated with the taishi system. The taishis mostly ruled the Yellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, jinong Ulusbold, over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and the Four Oirats.^[25] Making his another son jinong, he abolished old-Yuan court titles of taishi, chingsang, pingchan and chiyuan.

The Ming dynasty closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded China and subjugated the Three Guards, tributaries of the Ming. The Oirats assisted his campaign in China. The high point of Mongol power came again in 1517, when Dayan Khan moved on Beijing itself. The Mongolian armies raided the Ming Dynasty not only in the north, but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Ming Emperor Zhengde lost his protectorate Hami to the Turpans at the same time. In 1542 Dayan Khan defeated Chinese troops just before his death.^[26] The Tümed Mongols ruled in the Ordos region and they gradually extended their domain into northeastern Qinghai.^[27]

By that time, Mongol Khaganate stretched from the Siberian tundra and Lake Baikal in the north, across the Gobi, to the edge of the Yellow River and south of it into the Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of Manchuria in the East past the Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of Central Asia.^[28]

Administrative divisions

Batmunkh Dayan Khaan reorganized the Eastern Mongols into 6 tümens (literally "ten thousand") as follows.

• Left Wing:
  • Khalkha tumen: Northern 7 otog: (Jalaid, Besud, Eljigin, Gorlos, Khökhüid (Khukhuid), Khataghin, and later added Uriankhai). Southern 5 otog: (Baarin, Jaruud, Bayagud, Ujeed (Uchirad) and Hongirad)
  • Chahar tumen: Abaga, Abaganar, Aokhan, Daurs, Durved, Hishigten, Muumyangan, Naiman, Onnigud, Huuchid, Sunud, Uzemchin, and Urad^[29]
  • Uriankhai tumen. This tumen was later dissolved.

• Right Wing:
  • Ordos tumen:
  • Tümed tümen:
  • Yünsheebüü (Yöngshiyebü) tümen: (including Asud and Kharchin)

• Four tümen Oirats:
  • Choros, Olots, Durvud, Khoid, Baatud, Torghut, Khoshut, Ur (Ör) Mongol, Barga Mongols and Buryats. The Barga and Buryats later became subject of Khalkha.

They functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies who hoped to receive taijis, descended from Dayan Khan. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respectively. After the rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. However, his decision to divide the Six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs-sons in law of the taijis created a decentralized system of Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for a century. Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy.

Last reunion

By 1540 new regional circles of Chingisid taijis and local tabunangs (imperial son-in law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khanid domains. The Khagan and the jinong (crown prince) had titular authority over the three right wing tumens. Darayisung Gödeng Khan/Daraisun Guden khagan (r. 1547–57) had to grant titles of khans to his cousins Altan, ruling the Tumed and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin. The decentralized peace among the Mongols was based on religious and cultural unity created by Chinggisid cults.

A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder the districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the 3 Right Wing Tumens. The large-scale conversion to Buddhism in the Three Right Wing Tumens from 1575 on, built on the amity of the Chinggisids. Tümen Jasagtu Khan appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the Karma-pa order. In 1580 northern Khalkha proclaimed their leading Dayan Khanid prince, Abtai Khan, khan. Representatives from all Mongols, including Oirats, constituted the court of Tümen Jasagtu Khan who had conquered Koko Nur and codified a new law.^[30]

By the end of the 16th century, the Three Guards lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to the Nonni River. Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas.^[31]

Disunion of Mongolia (1600–1636)

In the 17th century, the Mongols came under the influence of the Manchus, who founded the Later Jin Dynasty (Qing Dynasty). The princes of Khorchin, Jarud and southern Khalkha Mongols made a formal alliance with the Manchus from 1612 to 1624.^[32] Resenting this suborning of his subjects, Ligdan Khan, the last Khagan^[33] in Chahar, unsuccessfully attacked them in 1625. He appointed his officials over the tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. The massive rebellion broke out in 1628. The Chahar under Ligden defeated their combined armies and the Manchu auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Manchu punitive expedition. Only Tsogt Taiji (1581–1637) supported the Great Khan whilst other nobles of Khalkha remained neutral and inactive. Ligden died on his way to Tibet to punish the dGe-lugs-pa order in 1634. His son, Ejei Khan, surrendered to the Manchus and was said to give the seal of the Yuan Khagan to Qing emperor Huang Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Northern Yuan.^[34]

After the death of Dayan Khan most of Mongolia came under the rule of descendents of his youngest son, Gersendze Huangtaizi (Gersenz huntaij). By the early 17th century these formed four Khanates, from west to east:

• The Altan Khans of Khotogoids in the far west, founded by Sholoi Ubashi,great grandson of Geresandza.
• The Dzasagtu Khans, khanate founded by Laikhor-khan, a cousin of the Altan Khan.
• The Tushetu Khans at Ulaanbaatar founded by Abatai, another grandson. This was the senior branch.
• The Sechen Khans at the eastern end of modern Mongolia, founded by Sholoi, a great-grandson.

In the north, from 1583, Russian adventurers gained control of the forest tribes of Siberia but did not attempt to interfere with the numerous and warlike peoples south of the forests. They had some dealings with the Altan Khan who is said to have introduced them to Chinese tea.

To the east, in 1582–1626, Nurhaci unified the tribes of Manchuria. His son, Huang Taiji (1626–1643) consolidated the new state and incorporated parts of Inner Mongolia. At his death Dorgon became regent for his 6-year-old son and was in charge when the Manchus took Beijing and founded the Qing Dynasty (1644).

To the west in Dzungaria, about 1600–1620 the Oirats became united under Khara Khula and formed the Zunghar Khanate.This unification was partly driven by their wars with the Altan Khans.

The Qing completely exterminated one branch (Ligdan Khan's descendants) of the Borjigids after an anti-Qing revolt in 1675 by Ejei's brother Abunai and Abunai's son Borni against the Qing.^[35] The Qing Emperors then placed the Chahar Mongols under their direct rule.

Struggle against foreign invasions (1636–1688)

In 1662 the Altan Khan attacked and put to death his eastern neighbor. This caused the senior Tushetu Khan to drive him out, but he was restored with Zunghar and Qing support. In 1682 he was captured by the next Dzashgtu Khan and his Khanate disappeared from history. The loss of the westernmost Khalkha Khanate opened the way for the Zunghars. In 1672 Galdan became Khan of the Zunghars. After conquering the northern Tarim Basin from Kashgar to Hami he began to dream of uniting the Mongols although as an Oirat Khan he was of non-Chingisid lineage unlike the Khans of the Khalkha Mongols.

The Dzungars in the Dzungar Khanate actively tried to resist the Qing dynasty. The Oirat Dzungar leader Erdeni Batur and Buddhist monk Zaya Pandita tried to form a alliance of Oirats and Khalkhas against the Manchu Qing and Russia, drawing up a single legal code for all the Mongols, banning shamanism, and declaring Tibetan Buddhism to be the sole religion of the Mongol peoples, by calling up a Kurultai (Congress) in 1640 which Dzungar Oirats, Khoshut Oirats from Qinghai (Kokonor), Torghut Oirats, Khalkha Mongols, and Tibetans attended.^{[36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]}

Decline (1688–1691)

Galdan allied with the Zasagtu Khan against the Tushetu Khan, who in turn attacked the Dzashgtu Khan (who drowned while trying to escape) and then invaded Dzungar territory where he killed one of Galdan's brothers. Galdan responded (1688) by annihilating the Tushetu Khan's army near the Tarim River and plundering the tombs at Karakoram. The Tushetu Khan and the other Khalkha leaders fled to Hohhot at the northeast corner of the Ordos Loop and begged for Qing help. By 1690 Galdan controlled the whole Khalkha country as far as the edge of Manchuria and turned south toward Beijing. This direct threat to the Qing led the Kangxi Emperor (Enh-Amgalan khaan-in Mongolian) to block Galdan who withdrew to the northwest in late 1690. In May 1691 the Emperor held a Kurultai at Dolon Nor (Dolonnuur) where the Khalkha chiefs declared themselves vassals of the Qing Emperors. In 1695 Galdan moved east again. The Emperor sent a massive army and defeated him near Ulan Bator (at Jao Modo or Zuunmod on June 12, 1696). Galdan fled with a few followers and later died. Outer Mongolia was thus incorporated into the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned to Outer Mongolia as Qing vassals. A Qing garrison was installed at Ulaanbaatar. The Qing forces occupied Hami but did not advance into Zungharia. Oirats later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan and they tried to control all Mongols.

References

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongolian Khaganate.

• Borjigin
• List of Mongol Khans
• Mongol Empire
• Yuan Dynasty

Post-Imperial Mongolia (1368–1691) Political organization Khagans Terms and prominent people Six Tumen Mongols Four Tumen Oirats Notable cities Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chakhar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tümed Yungshiyebu Choros Torghud Khoid Dorbed Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Chagaan Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1392)? Engke Khan (?–1392) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1392–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1400–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1478) Dayan Khan (1478–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1603) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Titles Prominent politicians and generals Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Darqan Chingsang Wang Köke Temür Arugtai Bahamu Toghan taishi Gulichi Bek Arslan Unebolad wang Altan Khan