Offshore wind power

Wind turbines and electrical substation of Alpha Ventus in the North Sea

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Stronger wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind power’s contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher,[1] and NIMBY opposition to construction is usually much weaker. However, offshore wind farms are relatively expensive.[2] At the end of 2012, 1,662 turbines at 55 offshore wind farms across 10 European countries were generating electricity enough to power almost five million households.[3]

As of 2010 Siemens and Vestas were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while Dong Energy, Vattenfall and E.on were the leading offshore operators.[1] As of October 2010, 3.16 gigawatts (GW) of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014 and the United Kingdom and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the United States.[1]

As of 2013 the 630 MW London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 megawatt (MW) Greater Gabbard wind farm is the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 7,200 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013.[4]

Definition

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Unlike the typical usage of the term "offshore" in the marine industry, offshore wind power includes inshore water areas such as lakes, fjords and sheltered coastal areas, utilizing traditional fixed-bottom wind turbine technologies, as well as deep-water areas utilizing floating wind turbines.

A subcategory within offshore wind power can be nearshore wind power.[5]

History

1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
1998
2002
2006
2010
2014
Global cumulative offshore capacity (in megawatts).
Sources: GWEC (2011–2014)[6] and EWEA (1998–2010)[7]

Europe is the world leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm being installed in Denmark in 1991.[8] In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year.[9] By January 2014, 69 offshore wind farms had been constructed in Europe with an average annual rated capacity of 482 MW in 2013,[10] and as of January 2014 the United Kingdom has by far the largest capacity of offshore wind farms with 3,681 MW. Denmark is second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium is third with 571 MW. Germany comes fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands (247 MW), Sweden (212 MW), Finland (26 MW), Ireland (25 MW), Spain (5 MW), Norway (2 MW) and Portugal (2 MW).[10] By January 2014, the total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters had reached 6,562 MW.[10]

As of January 2014, German wind turbine manufacturer Siemens Wind Power and Danish wind turbine manufacturer Vestas together have installed 80% of the world's 6.6 GW offshore wind power capacity; Senvion-REpower comes third with 8% and Bard (6%).[10]

Projections for 2020 calculate a wind farm capacity of 40 GW in European waters, which would provide 4% of the European Union's demand of electricity.[11]

The Chinese government has set ambitious targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. In May 2014 current capacity of offshore wind power in China was 565 MW.[12]

India is looking at the potential of off-shore wind power plants, with a 100 MW demonstration plant being planned off the coast of Gujarat (2014).[13] In 2013, a group of organizations, led by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) started project FOWIND (Facilitating Offshore Wind in India)to identify potential zones for development of off-shore wind power in India and to stimulate R & D activities in this areaFOWIND. In 2014 FOWIND commissioned Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP) to undertake pre-feasibility studies in eight zones in Tamil Nadu which have been identified as having potential[14].

Farms

Offshore wind turbines near Copenhagen.
World's largest offshore wind farms
Wind farm Capacity (MW) Country Turbines and model Commissioned References
London Array 630  United Kingdom 175 × Siemens SWT-3.6 2012 [15][16][17]
Greater Gabbard 504  United Kingdom 140 × Siemens SWT-3.6 2012 [18]
Anholt 400  Denmark 111 × Siemens SWT-3.6-120 2013 [19]
BARD Offshore 1 400  Germany 80 x BARD 5.0 turbines 2013 [20]
Walney 367  United Kingdom 102 × Siemens SWT-3.6 2012 [21][22]
Thorntonbank 325  Belgium 54 × Senvion 6 MW 2013 [23]
Sheringham Shoal 317  United Kingdom 88 × Siemens 3.6 2013 [24]
Thanet 300  United Kingdom 100 × Vestas V90-3MW 2010 [25][26]
Meerwind Süd/Ost 288  Germany 80 × Siemens SWT-3.6-120 2014 [27][28]
Lincs 270  United Kingdom 75 × Siemens 3.6 2013 [29]
Horns Rev II 209  Denmark 91 × Siemens 2.3-93 2009 [30]

At the end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW,[31] while 5,603 MW is under construction.[32] More than 100 GW (or 100,000 MW) of offshore projects are proposed or under development in Europe. The European Wind Energy Association has set a target of 40 GW installed by 2020 and 150 GW by 2030.[8]

As of July 2013, the 175-turbine London Array in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world with a capacity of 630 MW, followed by Greater Gabbard (504 MW), also in the United Kingdom, Anholt (400 MW) in Denmark, and BARD Offshore 1 (400 MW) in Germany.

There are many large offshore wind farms under construction including Gwynt y Môr (576 MW), Borkum West II (400 MW), and West of Duddon Sands (389 MW).

Offshore wind farms worth some €8.5 billion ($11.4 billion) were under construction in European waters in 2011. Once completed, they will represent an additional installed capacity of 2,844 MW.[33]

China has two operational offshore wind farms of 131 MW[34][35] and 101 MW capacity.[36][37]

The province of Ontario in Canada is pursuing several proposed locations in the Great Lakes, including the suspended[38] Trillium Power Wind 1 approximately 20 km from shore and over 400 MW in capacity.[39] Other Canadian projects include one on the Pacific west coast.[40]

As of 2012, there are no offshore wind farms in the United States. However, projects are under development in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. In January 2012, a "Smart for the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the Department of Interior approved “wind energy areas” off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly.[41]

Economics and benefits

Levelized cost of offshore wind power compared to other sources (Germany, November 2013)

Offshore wind power can help to reduce energy imports, reduce air pollution and greenhouse gases (by displacing fossil-fuel power generation), meet renewable electricity standards, and create jobs and local business opportunities.[8] However, according to the US Energy Information Agency, offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment".[2] The advantage is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over the continent, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be "located close to the power-hungry populations along the coasts, eliminating the need for new overland transmission lines".[42]

Most entities and individuals active in offshore wind power believe that prices of electricity will grow significantly from 2009, as global efforts to reduce carbon emissions come into effect. BTM expects cost per kWh to fall from 2014,[43] and that the resource will always be more than adequate in the three areas Europe, United States and China.[1]

The current state of offshore wind power presents economic challenges significantly greater than onshore systems - prices can be in the range of 2.5-3.0 million Euro/MW. The turbine represents just one third to one half[44] of costs in offshore projects today, the rest comes from infrastructure, maintenance, and oversight. Larger turbines with increased energy capture make more economic sense due to the extra infrastructure in offshore systems. Additionally, there are currently no rigorous simulation models of external effects on offshore wind farms, such as boundary layer stability effects and wake effects. This causes difficulties in predicting performance accurately, a critical shortcoming in financing billion-dollar offshore facilities. A report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, lays out several things needed in order to bring the costs down and make offshore wind more economically viable:

Research and development projects aim to address these issues. One example is the Carbon Trust Offshore Wind Accelerator, a joint industry project, involving nine offshore wind developers, which aims to reduce the cost of offshore wind by 10% by 2015. It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25% cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020.[46]

In 2011, a Danish energy company claimed that offshore wind turbines are not yet competitive with fossil fuels, but estimates that they will be in 15 years. Until then, state funding and pension funds will be needed.[47] Bloomberg estimates that energy from offshore wind turbines cost 161 euros ($208) per MegaWattHour.[48]

In Belfast, the harbour industry is being redeveloped as a hub for offshore windfarm construction, at a cost of about £50m. The work will create 150 jobs in construction, as well as requiring about 1m tonnes of stone from local quarries, which will create hundreds more jobs. "It is the first dedicated harbour upgrade for offshore wind".[49]

As the first Offshore Windfarms move beyond their initial Warranty periods with the Turbine Equipment Manufacturer an increase in alternative Operations and Maintenance support options is evident. Alternative suppliers of spare parts are entering the market and others are offering niche products and services many of which are focused on improving the power production volumes from these large renewable energy power plants.[50]

Technical details

In 2009, the average nameplate capacity of an offshore wind turbine in Europe was about 3 MW, and the capacity of future turbines is expected to increase to 5 MW.[8]

Offshore turbines require different types of bases for stability, according to the depth of water. To date a number of different solutions exist:

Turbines are much less accessible when offshore (requiring the use of a service vessel for routine access, and a jackup rig for heavy service such as gearbox replacement), and thus reliability is more important than for an onshore turbine.[1] A maintenance organization performs maintenance and repairs of the components, spending almost all its resources on the turbines. Access to turbines is by helicopter or service access vessel. Some wind farms located far from possible onshore bases have service teams living on site in offshore accommodation units.[56]

Because of their remote nature, prognosis and health-monitoring systems on offshore wind turbines will become much more necessary. They would enable better planning just-in-time maintenance, thereby reducing the operations and maintenance costs. According to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government (supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future),[45] making field data from these turbines available would be invaluable in validating complex analysis codes used for turbine design. Reducing this barrier would contribute to the education of engineers specializing in wind energy.

The planning and permitting phase can cost more than $10 million, take 5–7 years and have an uncertain outcome. The industry puts pressure on the governments to improve the processes.[57][58] In Denmark, many of these phases have been deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles,[59] and this policy has been extended for coastal wind farms with a concept called ’one-stop-shop’.[60] USA introduced a similar model called "Smart from the Start" in 2012.[61]

Some of the guidelines for designing offshore wind farms are IEC 61400-3,[62][63][64] but in the US several other standards are necessary.[65] The standards requires that a loads analysis is based on site-specific external conditions such as wind, wave and currents.[66]

Design environment

Offshore wind resource characteristics span a range of spatial and temporal scales and field data on external conditions. For the North Sea, wind turbine energy is around 30 kWh/m2 of sea area, per year, delivered to grid. The energy per sea area is roughly independent of turbine size.[67] Necessary data includes water depth, currents, seabed, migration, and wave action, all of which drive mechanical and structural loading on potential turbine configurations. Other factors include marine growth, salinity, icing, and the geotechnical characteristics of the sea or lake bed. A number of things are necessary in order to attain the necessary information on these subjects. Existing hardware for these measurements includes Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), Sonic Detection and Ranging (SODAR), radar, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), and remote satellite sensing, although these technologies should be assessed and refined, according to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future.[45]

Offshore Wind Turbines in Femern Belt, photograph taken from the sky in 2010, on the fly line between Marseille and Stockholm.

Because of the previous factors, one of the biggest difficulties with offshore wind farms is the ability to predict loads. Analysis must account for the dynamic coupling between translational (surge, sway, and heave) and rotational (roll, pitch, and yaw) platform motions and turbine motions, as well as the dynamic characterization of mooring lines for floating systems. Foundations and substructures make up a large fraction of offshore wind systems, and must take into account every single one of these factors.[45]

Corrosion is also a serious problem and requires detailed design considerations. The aspect of remote monitoring of corrosion looks very promising using expertise utilised by the offshore oil/gas industry and other large industrial plants.

Environmental Impact

While the offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, especially in Europe, there is still a great deal of uncertainty associated with how the construction and operation of these wind farms affect marine animals and the marine environment.[68]

Common environmental concerns associated with offshore wind developments include:

The Tethys database provides access to scientific literature and general information on the potential environmental effects of offshore wind energy.[69]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Madsen & Krogsgaard. Offshore Wind Power 2010 BTM Consult, 22 November 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011. Released December 16, 2010. Report of the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
  3. ↑ "Deep water: The next step for offshore wind energy". European Wind Energy Association (EWEA). 2013-07-01. Retrieved 2014-03-16.
  4. ↑ [The European offshore wind industry -key trends and statistics 1st half 2013 http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/statistics/EWEA_OffshoreStats_July2013.pdf ] EWEA 2013
  5. ↑ Erin Gill (2012-12-01). "Danish offshore strategy moves closer to shore". wind power monthly. Retrieved 2014-04-17.
  6. ↑ "GWEC Global Wind Statistics 2014" (PDF). Global Wind Energy Council. 10 February 2015.
  7. ↑ "Wind in our Sails, A report by the European Wind Energy Association - 2011" (PDF). European Wind Energy Association. 2011. p. 11. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Environmental and Energy Study Institute (October 2010). "Offshore Wind Energy" (PDF).
  9. ↑ "Wind in power 2013 European statistics" The European Wind Energy Association, 2014
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2013 ,The European Wind Energy Association, 2014
  11. ↑ Tillessen, Teena (2010). "High demand for wind farm installation vessels". Hansa International Maritime Journal 147 (8): 170–171.
  12. ↑ "Detailed appraisal of the offshore wind industry in China". The Carbon Trust. May 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  13. ↑ "MOU Signed for First Ever Offshore Wind Power Project in India". http://pib.nic.in''. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. October 1, 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
  14. ↑ R. Srikanth; Sangeetha Kandavel (January 29, 2015). "Tapping the offshore wind". The Hindu. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
  15. ↑ "London Array's own website announcement of commencement of offshore works" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  16. ↑ Wittrup, Sanne. First foundation Ing.dk, 8 March 2011. Accessed: 8 March 2011.
  17. ↑ "London Array Project home page". Londonarray.com. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  18. ↑ Greater Gabbard. "SSE wind farm Project Website". Sse.com. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  19. ↑ DONG Energy. "Facts on Anholt Offshore Wind Farm". dongenergy.com. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
  20. ↑ BARD Offshore (2013-08-01). "Pioneering wind farm project BARD Offshore 1 successfully completed on the high seas". BARD Offshore. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
  21. ↑ "Walney". 4COffshore. 2012-02-09. Retrieved 2012-02-09.
  22. ↑ "World's biggest offshore wind farm opens off Britain as new minister admits high cost". The Telegraph. 2012-02-09. Retrieved 2012-02-09.
  23. ↑ "Belgium: Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Officially Inaugurated". offshorewind.biz. 2013-09-18. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
  24. ↑ "Sheringham Shoal". scira.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
  25. ↑ "Thanet". The Engineer Online. 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  26. ↑ "Thanet offshore wind farm starts electricity production". BBC News. 23 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-14.
  27. ↑ Meerwind Süd/Ost (Germany) offshore wind farm 4C . Retrieved: 14 December 2014.
  28. ↑ Meerwind Süd/Ost
  29. ↑ "Lincs OWF: Centrica Expresses Gratitude to Local Community (UK)". offshorewind.biz. 2013-07-04. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
  30. ↑ "Horns Rev II turbines". Dongenergy.com. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  31. ↑ Justin Wilkes et al. The European offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics European Wind Energy Association, January 2012. Accessed: 26 March 2012.
  32. ↑ 17 EU countries planning massive offshore wind power ROV world, 30 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011.
  33. ↑ Tildy Bayar (30 September 2011). "Wind Energy Markets: Experts See Solid Offshore Growth". Renewable Energy World.
  34. ↑ 5 January 2012 by Wu Qi , Be the first to comment (2012-01-05). "China's largest offshore project now online". Windpowermonthly.com. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  35. ↑ "Xinhuanet: Pilot project paves way for China's offshore wind power boom". News.xinhuanet.com. 2012-01-03. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  36. ↑ "Donghai Bridge at 4cOffshore". 4coffshore.com. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  37. ↑ http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/2010-07/07/c_13387557.htm
  38. ↑ Offshore wind development hits a snag in Ontario Alberta Oil Magazine, April 2011. Accessed: 29 September 2011.
  39. ↑ Hamilton, Tyler (January 15, 2008). "Ontario to approve Great Lakes wind power". The Star (Toronto). Retrieved 2008-05-02.
  40. ↑ "Naikun Wind Development, Inc.". Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  41. ↑ Kit Kennedy (2 February 2012). "Offshore Wind One Step Closer to Reality in the Mid-Atlantic". Renewable Energy World.
  42. ↑ "Wind Power". New York Times. January 27, 2002.
  43. ↑ Madsen & Krogsgaard. Press offshore (in Danish) BTM Consult, 22 November 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010.
  44. ↑ Lindvig, Kaj. The installation and servicing of offshore wind farms p6 A2SEA, 16 September 2010. Accessed: 9 October 2011.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 Zehnder and Warhaft, Alan and Zellman. "University Collaboration on Wind Energy" (PDF). Cornell University. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
  46. ↑ "Offshore Wind Accelerator". The Carbon Trust. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  47. ↑ Nymark, Jens. Seaturbines competitive in 15 years Børsen, 15 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011.
  48. ↑ Bakewell, Sally (29 October 2012). "Largest Offshore Wind Farm Generates First Power in U.K.". Bloomberg. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  49. ↑ Fiona Harvey (6 February 2012). "Offshore wind turbines set to benefit British industries". The Guardian.
  50. ↑ http://generatingbetter.co.uk/what-does-successful-operations-maintenance-look-like/
  51. ↑ "Support structure concepts for offshore wind turbines". LORC Knowledge. 2011-03-14. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
  52. ↑ "Design requirements for floating offshore wind turbines" International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.
  53. ↑ "Classification and Certification of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines" Bureau Veritas, November 2010. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.
  54. ↑ Elaine Kurtenbach. "Japan starts up offshore wind farm near Fukushima" The Sydney Morning Herald, 12 November 2013. Accessed: 11 November 2013.
  55. ↑ "Japan: Experimental Offshore Floating Wind Farm Project" OffshoreWind, 11 October 2013. Accessed: 12 October 2013.
  56. ↑ Accommodation Platform DONG Energy, February 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010.
  57. ↑ Jamie D. (2009-06-11). "N.J. must make wind farm permitting process as quick and easy as possible | Commentary | NewJerseyNewsroom.com - Your State. Your News". NewJerseyNewsroom.com. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
  58. ↑
  59. ↑ Streamline Renewable Energy Policy and make Australia a World Leader Energy Matters, 11 August 2010. Retrieved: 6 November 2010.
  60. ↑ "Nearshore wind turbines in Denmark" (in Danish). Danish Energy Agency, June 2012. Retrieved: 26 June 2012.
  61. ↑ "Smart from the Start" Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Accessed: 20 November 2013.
  62. ↑ "Wind turbines Part 3: Design requirements for offshore wind turbines" Austrian Standards Institute. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.
  63. ↑ International Standard IEC 61400-3 International Electrotechnical Commission, August 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011.
  64. ↑ Quarton, D.C. "An international design standard for offshore wind turbines: IEC 61400-3" Garrad Hassan, 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011.
  65. ↑ Musial, W. D.; Sheppard, R. E.; Dolan, D.; Naughton, B. "Development of Offshore Wind Recommended Practice for U.S. Waters" National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2013. Accessed: 20 November 2013. OSTI ID: 1078076
  66. ↑ Jonkman, J.M. "Dynamics Modeling and Loads Analysis of an Offshore Floating Wind Turbine" Technical Report NREL/TP-500-41958 page 75, NREL November 2007. Retrieved: 25 June 2012.
  67. ↑ Stiesdal, Henrik. "Pi and turbines - a useful context" Original, in Danish Ingeniøren, 13 March 2015. Accessed: 13 March 2015.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 "Tethys".
  69. ↑ "Tethys".

External links

Media related to Offshore wind power at Wikimedia Commons