Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

Not to be confused with Muhammad Abdul Wahhab.
Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb
Born 1703
'Uyayna, Najd
Died 1792 (aged 88–89)
Emirate of Diriyah
Era 18th century
Region present day Saudi Arabia
Denomination Sunni
Jurisprudence Hanbali[1]
Creed Athari[1]
Movement Wahhabi movement
Main interest(s) Aqeedah
Notable idea(s) Views on innovations within Islam, Tawhid and shirk[2][3]
Arabic name
Name
(Ism)		 Muhammad
Patronymics
(Nasab)		 ibn `Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rashid
Teknonymy
(Kunya)		 Abu Abdullah
Onomastic
(Nisba)		 al- Tamimi

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab (/wəˈhɑːb/; Arabic: محمد بن عبد الوهاب‎; 1703 – 22 June 1792)[4] was a preacher and scholar from Nejd in central Arabia who founded an Islamic movement today often known as "Wahhabism", although many adherents see this as a derogatory term coined by his opponents, and prefer it to be known as "Salafism".[4][5][6][7] However, many scholars claim that Salafism is a term applicable to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. According to Ahmad Moussalli, professor of political science at the American University of Beirut, "As a rule, all Wahhabis are salafists, but not all salafists are Wahhabis".[8] Yet others mean that while Wahhabism and Salafism originally were two different things, they became practically indistinguishable in the 1970s.[9][10] 20th century Albanian scholar Nasiruddin Albani refers his activism to as "Najdi da'wah."[1]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab considered his movement to be an effort to purify Islam by returning Muslims to what, he believed, were the original principles of that religion.[11] He therefore rejected certain common Muslim practices which he regarded as amounting to either religious innovation (Bid'ah) or polytheism (Shirk). Al-Wahab was an exact contemporary of English Christian reformer John Wesley, the founder of Methodism.

His pact with Muhammad bin Saud helped to establish the first Saudi state[12] and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[13] The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[14] dominating the state's clerical institutions.[15]

Early years

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged[16] to have been born in 1703[17] into the sedentary Arab clan of Banu Tamim[18] (the Banu Tamim were not a nomadic tribe) in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd region of the modern Saudi Arabia.[17][19]

He was thought to have started studying Islam at an early age, primarily with his father, ʿAbd al-Wahhab[20][21] as his family was from a line of scholars of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence.[22]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab reportedly spent some time studying with Muslim scholars in the cities of Mecca and Medina after performing Hajj, notably Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi.[23][24][25] and in Basra (in southern Iraq).[20][26]

In Mecca, the Hanbali mufti, Ibn Humaydi, perceived Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to be a poor student, and arrogant and defiant with his teachers, which upset his father. Consequently, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not complete his studies.[27]

Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab's teacher Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina and recommended him as a student.[28] Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindi became very close and Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[28] Scholars have described Muhammad Hayya as having an important influence on Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, who taught Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihad). Muhammad Hayya also taught Mohammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs that resembles later Wahhabi teachings.[28] Muhammad Hayya and his milieu are important for understanding the origins of at least the Wahhabi revivalist impulse.[29]

Following his early education in Medina, Abdul Wahhab traveled outside of the peninsula, venturing first to Basra.

Early preaching

After his return home, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab came to an agreement to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler’s support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to implement some of his ideas for reform. First, citing Islamic teachings forbidding grave worship, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose grave was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. And last he personally organised the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[30][30][31]

These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar with denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.[31][32]

Emergence of Saudi state

Pact with Muhammad bin Saud

First Saudi State (1744–1818)

Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad bin Saud. After some time in Diriyah, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[33] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to one source, when they first met, bin Saud declared:

"This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you."
—Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:

"You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad (Struggle to spread Islam) against the unbelievers. In return you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters."
—Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[34] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues.[33] This agreement became a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement between the Al Saud family, and the Al ash-Sheikh and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which has remained in place for nearly 300 years,[35] providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[36]

Emirate of Diriyah (First Saudi State)

Main article: Emirate of Diriyah

The 1744 pact between Muhammad bin Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the emergence of the first Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah. By offering the Al Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[15] First conquering Najd, Saud's forces expanded the Salafi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[15] eradicating various popular practices akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[15][37]

Family

Main article: Al ash-Sheikh

While in Baghdad, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent woman. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.[38] This claim of marriage to "wealthy woman" and traveling to Baghdad is challenged by scholars who assert that his marriage was arranged by his father when he was a teenager and he never traveled beyond Basra.[39] Muhammad ibn 'Abd Al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain, Abdullah, Hassan, Ali and Ibrahim and Abdul-Aziz who died in his youth. All his surviving sons established religious schools close to their homes and taught the young students from Diriyah and other places.[40]

The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[14] dominating the state's religious institutions.[15] Within Saudi Arabia, the family is held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family, with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.[41] The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[42] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimise the royal family's rule.[43]

Teachings

See also Salafi and Wahhabi movement.

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab considered his movement an effort to purify Islam by returning Muslims to what, he believed, were the original principles of that religion, as typified by the Salaf and rejecting, what he regarded, as religious innovations (Bid'ah) and polytheism (Shirk).[44] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and unity of God (Tawhid).[45][46] The first aspect of Tawhid is belief in Allah and His Lordship, that He alone is the believer's lord (Rabb). The second is the oneness of worship to Allah and Allah alone. The third being belief and affirmation of Allah's Names and Attributes.

The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitab al-Tawhid, a short essay which draws from material in the Quran and the recorded doings and sayings (hadith) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[47] It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (salat); fasting (sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha); seeking help (Ist'ana and Istighatha) of Allah.[2]

Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was keen on emphasizing that other acts, such as making dua or calling upon/supplication to or seeking help, protection or intercession from anyone or anything other than Allah, are acts of shirk and contradict the tenets of tawhid and that those who tried would never be forgiven.[2][48]

Although all Muslims pray to one God (Allah), the highlight of this movement was that no intercession with God was possible, Muhammad strictly advocated Takfir of those who considered themselves Muslim but were actually (Ibn Abdul-Wahhab believed) polytheists (mushrikeen).[3] However, he avoided blanket takfir to all groups.[49] In this regard he said "I do not say that own who prostrates on the grave Abdul-Qadir Gilani unknowingly, has done shirk, but the one has done knowingly has."[44]

On Sufism

Although highly critical of the Sufi practice of tawassul, at the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah,Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son ‘Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of tazkiah (purification of the inner self).[50][51]

Non-Muslims

According to author Dore Gold,[52] in Kitab al-Tawhid, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab described followers of both the Christian and Jewish faiths as sorcerers who believed in devil worship, and cited a hadith of the prophet stating that punishment for the sorcerer is `that he be struck with the sword.`[53] Wahhab asserted that both religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.[54] Wahhab concluded that `The ways of the people of the book are condemned as those of polytheists.`[55]

However author Natana J. DeLong-Bas defends Wahhab, stating that

despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death. … he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife …"[56]

Reception

By contemporaries

As with the early Salafists, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings were criticized by a number of Islamic scholars for disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life.[27] His own brother, Sulayman, was particularly critical, claiming he was ill-educated and intolerant, classing Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's views as fringe and fanatical.[27] It is generally believed, however, that the two later reconciled.[57] A list of scholars with opposing views, along with names of their books and related information, was compiled by the Islamic scholar Muhammad Hisham.[58]

By modern scholars

Pakistani Muslim scholars such Israr Ahmed have spoken positively on him.[59] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is accepted by Salafi scholars as an authority and source of reference.[60] 20th century Albanian scholar Nasiruddin Albani refers his activism as "Najdi da'wah."[1]

Works

Sources

There are two contemporary histories of Muhammed ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his religious movement from the point of view of his supporters: Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd. Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[61][62] Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's, but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[61]

A third account, dating from around 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab, written by an anonymous Sunni author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a bid'ah. It is also commonly cited because it is considered to be a relatively objective contemporary treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work is believed to contain some apocryphal and legendary material with respect to the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[22][63]

See also

Notes

  1. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi, 'Allama al-Shaykh Sulayman, elder brother of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: al-Sawa'iq al-Ilahiyya fi al-radd 'ala al-Wahhabiyya ["Divine Lightnings in Answering the Wahhabis"]. Ed. Ibrahim Muhammad al-Batawi. Cairo: Dar al-insan, 1987. Offset reprint by Waqf Ikhlas, Istanbul: Hakikat Kitabevi, 1994. Prefaces by Shaykh Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Kurdi al-Shafi`i and Shaykh Muhammad Hayyan al-Sindi (Muhammad Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab's shaykh) to the effect that Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab is "dall mudill" ("misguided and misguiding"). His brother however, is known to have reconciled with him.[40]
  2. Al-Dahesh ibn `Abd Allah, Dr. (Arab University of Morocco), ed. Munazara `ilmiyya bayna `Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sharif wa al-Imam Ahmad ibn Idris fi al-radd `ala Wahhabiyyat Najd, Tihama, wa `Asir ["Scholarly Debate Between the Sharif and Ahmad ibn Idris Against the Wahhabis of Najd, Tihama, and `Asir"].
  3. Ibn 'Afaliq al-Hanbali, Muhammad Ibn 'Abdul Rahman: Tahakkum al-muqallidin bi man idda`a tajdid al-din [Sarcasm of the muqallids against the false claimants to the Renewal of Religion]. A very comprehensive book refuting the Wahhabi heresy and posting questions which Ibn 'Abdul Wahhab and his followers were unable to answer for the most part.
  4. Ibn Dawud al-Hanbali, 'Afif al-Din 'Abd Allah: as-sawa`iq wa al-ru`ud ["Lightnings and thunder"], a very important book in 20 chapters. According to the Mufti of Yemen Shaykh al-'Alawi ibn Ahmad al-Haddad, the mufti of Yemen, "This book has received the approval of the 'ulama of Basra, Baghdad, Aleppo, and Ahsa' [Arabian peninsula]. It was summarized by Muhammad ibn Bashir the qadi of Ra's al-Khayma in Oman."
  5. Dahlan, al-Sayyid Ahmad ibn Zayni. Mufti of Mecca and Shaykh al-Islam (highest religious authority in the Ottoman jurisdiction) for the Hijaz region: al-Durar al-saniyyah fi al-radd ala al-Wahhabiyyah ["The Pure Pearls in Answering the Wahhabis"] pub. Egypt 1319 & 1347 H; Fitnat al-Wahhabiyyah ["The Wahhabi Fitna"]; Khulasat al-Kalam fi bayan Umara' al-Balad al-Haram ["The Summation Concerning the Leaders of the Sacrosanct Country"], a history of the Wahhabi fitna in Najd and the Hijaz.
  6. al-Dajwi, Hamd Allah: al-Basa'ir li Munkiri al-tawassul ka amthal Muhd. Ibn `Abdul Wahhab ["The Evident Proofs Against Those Who Deny the Seeking of Intercession Like Muhammad Ibn `Abdul Wahhab"].
  7. Shaykh al-Islam Dawud ibn Sulayman al-Baghdadi al-Hanafi (1815–1881 CE): al-Minha al-Wahbiyya fi radd al-Wahhabiyya ["The Divine Dispensation Concerning the Wahhabi Deviation"]; Ashadd al-Jihad fi Ibtal Da'wa al-Ijtihad ["The Most Violent Jihad in Proving False Those Who Falsely Claim Ijtihad"].
  8. Al-Falani al-Maghribi, al-Muhaddith Salih: authored a large volume collating the answers of scholars of the Four Schools to Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab.
  9. al-Habibi, Muhammad `Ashiq al-Rahman: `Adhab Allah al-Mujdi li Junun al-Munkir al-Najdi ["Allah's Terrible Punishment for the Mad Rejector From Najd"].
  10. Al-Haddad, al-Sayyid al-'Alawi ibn Ahmad ibn Hasan ibn al-Qutb
  11. Sayyidi 'Abd Allah ibn 'Alawi al-Haddad al-Shafi'i: al-Sayf al-batir li 'unq al-munkir 'ala al-akabir ["The Sharp Sword for the Neck of the Assailant of Great Scholars"].
  12. Unpublished manuscript of about 100 folios; Misbah al-anam wa jala' al-zalam fi radd shubah al-bid'i al-najdi al-lati adalla biha al-'awamm ["The Lamp of Mankind and the Illumination of Darkness Concerning the Refutation of the Errors of the Innovator From Najd by Which He Had Misled the Common People"]. Published 1325H
  13. KabbaniAl-Ahsa'i Al-Misri, Ahmad (1753–1826): Unpublished manuscript of a refutation of the Wahhabi sect. His son Shaykh Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn 'Abd al-Latif al-Ahsa'i also wrote a book refuting them.
  14. Al-Ahsa'i, Al-Sayyid 'Abd al-Rahman: wrote a sixty-seven verse poem which begins with the verse: Badat fitnatun kal layli qad ghattatil aafaaqa /wa sha``at fa kadat tublighul gharba wash sharaqa [ A confusion came about like nightfall covering the skies /and became widespread almost reaching the whole world]
  15. Al-'Amrawi, 'Abd al-Hayy, and 'Abd al-Hakim Murad (Qarawiyyin University, Morocco): Al-tahdhir min al-ightirar bi ma ja'a fi kitab al-hiwar ["Warning Against Being Fooled By the Contents of the Book (by Ibn Mani') A Debate With al-Maliki (an attack on Ibn 'Alawi al-Maliki by a Wahhabi writer)"] (Fes: Qarawiyyin, 1984).
  16. Ata' Allah al-Makki: al-sarim al-hindi fil 'unuq al-najdi ["The Indian Scimitar on the Najdi's Neck"].
  17. Al-Azhari, 'Abd Rabbih ibn Sulayman al-Shafi'i (The author of Sharh Jami' al-Usul li ahadith al-Rasul, a basic book of Usul al-Fiqh: Fayd al-Wahhab fi Bayan Ahl al-Haqq wa man dalla `an al-sawab, 4 vols. ["Allah's Outpouring in Differentiating the True Muslims From Those Who Deviated From the Truth"].
  18. Al-'Azzami, 'Allama al-shaykh Salama (d. 1379H): Al-Barahin al-sati'at ["The Radiant Proofs..."].
  19. .Al-Barakat al-Shafi'i al-Ahmadi al-Makki, 'Abd al-Wahhab ibn Ahmad: unpublished manuscript of a refutation of the Wahhabi sect.
  20. al-Bulaqi, Mustafa al-Masri wrote a refutation to San`a'i's poem in which the latter had praised Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab. It is in Samnudi's "Sa`adat al-Darayn" and consists in 126 verses.
  21. Al-Buti, Dr. Muhammad Sa`id Ramadan (University of Damascus): Al-Salafiyyatu marhalatun zamaniyyatun mubarakatun la madhhabun islami ["The Salafiyya is a blessed historical period not an Islamic school of law"] (Damascus: Dar al-fikr, 1988); Al-lamadhhabiyya akhtaru bid`atin tuhaddidu al-shari`a al-islamiyya ["Non-madhhabism is the most dangerous innovation presently menacing Islamic law"] (Damascus: Maktabat al-Farabi, n.d.).
  22. Al-Hamami al-Misri, Shaykh Mustafa: Ghawth al-`ibad bi bayan al-rashad ["The Helper of Allah's Servants According to the Affirmation of Guidance"].
  23. Al-Hilmi al-Qadiri al-Iskandari, Shaykh Ibrahim: Jalal al-haqq fi kashf ahwal ashrar al-khalq ["The Splendor of Truth in Exposing the Worst of People] (pub. 1355H).
  24. Al-Husayni, 'Amili, Muhsin (1865–1952). Kashf al-irtiyab fi atba' Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab ["The Dispelling of Doubt Concerning the Followers of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab"]. [Yemen?]: Maktabat al-Yaman al-Kubra, 198?.
  25. Al-Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham, Encyclopedia of Islamic Doctrine, vol. 1–7, As-Sunnah Foundation of America, 1998.
  26. Islamic Beliefs and Doctrine According to Ahl as-Sunna – A Repudiation of "Salafi" Innovations, ASFA, 1996.
  27. Innovation and True Belief: the Celebration of Mawlid According to the Qur'an and Sunna and the Scholars of Islam, ASFA, 1995.
  28. Salafi Movement Unveiled, ASFA, 1997.
  29. Ibn `Abd al-Latif al-Shafi`i, `Abd Allah: Tajrid sayf al-jihad `ala mudda`i al-ijtihad ["The drawing of the sword of jihad against the false claimants to ijtihad"].
  30. The family of Ibn 'Abd al-Razzaq al-Hanbali in Zubara and Bahrayn possess both manuscript and printed refutations by scholars of the Four Schools from Mecca, Madina, al-Ahsa', al-Basra, Baghdad, Aleppo, Yemen and other Islamic regions.
  31. Ibn 'Abidin al-Hanafi, al-Sayyid Muhammad Amin: Radd al-muhtar `ala al-durr al-mukhtar, Vol. 3, Kitab al-Iman, Bab al-bughat ["Answer to the Perplexed: A Commentary on "The Chosen Pearl,"" Book of Belief, Chapter on Rebels]. Cairo: Dar al-Tiba`a al-Misriyya, 1272 H.
  32. Ibn Khalifa `Ulyawi al-Azhari: Hadhihi `aqidatu al-salaf wa al-khalaf fi dhat Allahi ta`ala wa sifatihi wa af`alihi wa al-jawab al-sahih li ma waqa`a fihi al-khilaf min al-furu` bayna al-da`in li al-Salafiyya wa atba` al-madhahib al-arba`a al-islamiyya ["This is the doctrine of the Predecessors and the Descendants concerning the divergences in the branches between those who call to al-Salafiyya and the followers of the Four Islamic Schools of Law"] (Damascus: Matba`at Zayd ibn Thabit, 1398/1977.
  33. Kawthari al-Hanafi, Muhammad Zahid. Maqalat al-Kawthari. (Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Azhariyah li al-Turath, 1994).
  34. Al-Kawwash al-Tunisi, `Allama Al-Shaykh Salih: his refutation of the Wahhabi sect is contained in Samnudi's volume: "Sa`adat al-darayn fi al-radd `ala al-firqatayn."
  35. Khazbek, Shaykh Hasan: Al-maqalat al-wafiyyat fi al-radd `ala al-wahhabiyyah ["Complete Treatise in Refuting the Wahhabis"].
  36. Makhluf, Muhammad Hasanayn: Risalat fi hukm al-tawassul bil-anbiya wal-awliya ["Treatise on the Ruling Concerning the Use of Prophets and Saints as Intermediaries"].
  37. Al-Maliki al-Husayni, Al-muhaddith Muhammad al-Hasan ibn 'Alawi: Mafahimu yajibu an tusahhah ["Notions that should be corrected"] 4th ed. (Dubai: Hashr ibn Muhammad Dalmuk, 1986); Muhammad al-insanu al-kamil ["Muhammad, the Perfect Human Being"] 3rd ed. (Jeddah: Dar al-Shuruq, 1404/1984).
  38. Al-Mashrifi al-Maliki al-Jaza'iri: Izhar al-`uquq mimman mana`a al-tawassul bil nabi wa al-wali al-saduq ["The Exposure of the Disobedience of Those Who Forbid Using the Intermediary of the Prophets and the Truthful Saints].
  39. Al-Mirghani al-Ta'ifi, 'Allama 'Abd Allah ibn Ibrahim (d. 1793): Tahrid al-aghbiya' 'ala al-Istighatha bil-anbiya' wal-awliya ["The Provocations of the Ignorant Against Seeking the Help of Prophets and Saints"] (Cairo: al-Halabi, 1939).
  40. Mu'in al-Haqq al-Dehlawi (d. 1289): Sayf al-Jabbar al-maslul `ala a`da' al-Abrar ["The Sword of the Almighty Drawn Against the Enemies of the Pure Ones"].
  41. Al-Muwaysi al-Yamani, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Isa: Unpublished manuscript of a refutation of the Wahhabi sect.
  42. Al-Nabahani al-Shafi`i, al-qadi al-muhaddith Yusuf ibn Isma`il (1850–1932): Shawahid al-Haqq fi al-istighatha bi sayyid al-Khalq (s) ["The Proofs of Truth in the Seeking of the Intercession of the Prophet"].
  43. Al-Qabbani al-Basri al-Shafi'i, Allama Ahmad ibn 'Ali: A manuscript treatise in approximately 10 chapters.
  44. Al-Qadumi al-Nabulusi al-Hanbali: `AbdAllah: Rihlat ["Journey"].
  45. Al-Qazwini, Muhammad Hasan, (d. 1825). Al-Barahin al-jaliyyah fi raf' tashkikat al-Wahhabiyah ["The Plain Demonstrations That Dispel the Aspersions of the Wahhabis"]. Ed. Muhammad Munir al-Husayni al-Milani. 1st ed. Beirut: Mu'assasat al-Wafa', 1987.
  46. Al-Qudsi: al-Suyuf al-Siqal fi A`naq man ankara `ala al-awliya ba`d al-intiqal ["The Burnished Swords on the Necks of Those Who Deny the Role of Saints After Their Leaving This World"].
  47. Al-Rifa'i, Yusuf al-Sayyid Hashim, President of the World Union of Islamic Propagation and Information: Adillat Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama`at aw al-radd al-muhkam al-mani` `ala munkarat wa shubuhat Ibn Mani` fi tahajjumihi `ala al-sayyid Muhammad `Alawi al-Maliki al-Makki ["The Proofs of the People of the Way of the Prophet and the Muslim Community: or, the Strong and Decisive Refutation of Ibn Mani`'s Aberrations and Aspersions in his Assault on Muhammad `Alawi al-Maliki al-Makki"] (Kuwait: Dar al-siyasa, 1984).
  48. Al-Samnudi al-Mansuri, al-`Allama al-Shaykh Ibrahim: Sa`adat al-darayn fi al-radd `ala al-firqatayn al-wahhabiyya wa muqallidat al-zahiriyyah ["Bliss in the Two Abodes: Refutation of the Two Sects, Wahhabis and Zahiri Followers"].
  49. Al-Saqqaf al-Shafi'i, Hasan ibn 'Ali, Islamic Research Institute, Amman, Jordan: al-Ighatha bi adillat al-istighatha wa al-radd al-mubin `ala munkiri al-tawassul ["The Mercy of Allah in the Proofs of Seeking Intercession and the Clear Answer to Those who Reject it"]; Ilqam al hajar li al-mutatawil 'ala al-Asha'ira min al-Bashar ["The Stoning of All Those Who Attack Ash'aris"]; Qamus shata'im al-Albani wa al-alfaz al-munkara al-lati yatluquha fi haqq ulama al-ummah wa fudalai'ha wa ghayrihim... ["Encyclopedia of al-Albani's Abhorrent Expressions Which He Uses Against the Scholars of the Community, its Eminent Men, and Others..."] Amman : Dar al-Imam al-Nawawi, 1993.
  50. Al-Sawi al-Misri: Hashiyat `ala al-jalalayn ["Commentary on the Tafsir of the Two Jalal al-Din"].
  51. Sayf al-Din Ahmed ibn Muhammad: Al-Albani Unveiled: An Exposition of His Errors and Other Important Issues, 2nd ed. (London: s.n., 1994).
  52. Al-Shatti al-Athari al-Hanbali, al-Sayyid Mustafa ibn Ahmad ibn Hasan, Mufti of Syria: al-Nuqul al-shar'iyyah fi al-radd 'ala al-Wahhabiyya ["The Legal Proofs in Answering the Wahhabis"].
  53. Al-Subki, al-hafiz Taqi al-Din (d. 756/1355): Al-durra al-mudiyya fi al-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya, ed. Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari ["The Luminous Pearl: A Refutation of Ibn Taymiyya"]; Al-rasa'il al-subkiyya fi al-radd 'ala Ibn Taymiyya wa tilmidhihi Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, ed. Kamal al-Hut ["Subki's treatises in Answer to Ibn Taymiyya and his pupil Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya"] (Beirut: `Alam al-Kutub, 1983); Al-sayf al-saqil fi al-radd `ala Ibn Zafil ["The Burnished Sword in Refuting Ibn Zafil (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya)"] Cairo: Matba`at al-Sa`ada, 1937; Shifa' al-siqam fi ziyarat khayr al-anam ["The healing of the sick in visiting the Best of Creation"].
  54. Sunbul al-Hanafi al-Ta'ifi, Allama Tahir: Sima al-Intisar lil awliya' al-abrar ["The Mark of Victory Belongs to Allah's Pure Friends"].
  55. Al-Tabataba'i al-Basri, al-Sayyid: also wrote a reply to San`a'i's poem which was excerpted in Samnudi's Sa`adat al-Darayn. After reading it, San`a'i reversed his position and said: "I have repented from what I said concerning the Najdi."
  56. Al-Tamimi al-Maliki, `Allama Isma`il (d. 1248), Shaykh al-Islam in Tunis: wrote a refutation of a treatise of Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab.
  57. Al-Wazzani, al-Shaykh al-Mahdi, Mufti of Fes, Morocco: Wrote a refutation of Muhammad `Abduh's prohibition of tawassul.
  58. Al-Zahawi al-Baghdadi, Jamil Effendi Sidqi (d. 1355/1936): al-Fajr al-Sadiq fi al-radd 'ala munkiri al-tawassul wa al-khawariq ["The True Dawn in Refuting Those Who Deny the Seeking of Intercession and the Miracles of Saints"] Pub. 1323/1905 in Egypt.
  59. Al-Zamzami al-Shafi'i, Muhammad Salih, Imam of the Maqam Ibrahim in Mecca, wrote a book in 20 chapters against them according to al-Sayyid al-Haddad.
  60. Ahmad, Qeyamuddin. The Wahhabi movement in India. 2nd rev. ed. New Delhi: Manohar, 1994, Zahawi. pages 7–15.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Qadhi, Dr. Yasir. "On Salafi Islam". Muslim Matters. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu (PDF). Shaikh Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. (Arabic source)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Wahabi & Salafi". Alahazrat.net. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  5. ↑ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says Linked 2015-03-03
  6. ↑ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. ix. Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity.
  7. ↑ Delong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 4.
  8. ↑ Moussalli, Ahmad (January 30, 2009). Wahhabism, Salafism and Islamism: Who Is The Enemy? (PDF). A Conflicts Forum Monograph. p. 3.
  9. ↑ Abou El Fadl, Khaled M., The Great Theft, HarperSanFrancisco, 2005, p.79
  10. ↑ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, pp 3-4 Linked 2015-03-03
  11. ↑ "Imam Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab". Saudi Arabian Market Information Resource. Saudi Arabian Market Information Resource. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
  12. ↑ Hourani 1992: 257–258
  13. ↑ Nawaf E. Obaid (Sep 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly VI (3): 51–58. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Metz 1992
  16. ↑ While there is some consensus over these details, the opinion is not unanimous over the specifics in regard to his place and date of birth. Seemingly his recognition with the Banu Tamim tribe thought is in line with the justification by some scholars of being the inheritor of the teachings of Ibn Taymiyyah.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Philby 1930: 8
  18. ↑ Glassé 2003: 470
  19. ↑ EI1: 1086
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 ibn Ghannam: 75–76
  21. ↑ Hopwood 1972: 55
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 EI2: 677–678
  23. ↑ ibn 'Hajar: 17–19
  24. ↑ ibn Baaz: 21
  25. ↑ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
  26. ↑ ibn Bishr: 7–8
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 El Fadl 2007: 56–57
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Voll 1975: 32–39
  29. ↑ BOOK REVIEWS – Robinson 3 (1): 116 – Journal of Islamic Studies
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Lacey 1983: 56
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 DeLong-Bas 2004: 24
  32. ↑ ibn 'Hajar: 28
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 DeLong-Bas 2004: 34
  34. ↑ Ibnsaud.info 2008
  35. ↑ Obaid 1999: 51–58
  36. ↑ Faksh 1997: 89–90
  37. ↑ EBO History of Arabia 2011
  38. ↑ EBO Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb 2011
  39. ↑ Hasan 'Abdul Ghaffaar, Shaykh Suhayb. "A Correction Of Misunderstandings Found In Non-Arabic Sources About The Movement Of Sheikh Muhammad Bin Abdul Wahhab". Ahya.com. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Wahabism Exposed!". Sultan.org. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  41. ↑ Ottaway 2008: 176
  42. ↑ Nyrop 2008: 50
  43. ↑ Bligh 1985: 37–50
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Kitab at-Tawhid
  45. ↑ Esposito 2003, p. 333
  46. ↑ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
  47. ↑ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 12. This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Sheikh Muhhamad's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Kashf ush-Shubuhaat
  49. ↑ Qadhi, Dr. Yasir (22 April 2014). "On Salafi Islam". Muslim Matters. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  50. ↑ al-Makki, ‘Abd al-Hafiz. "Shaykh Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband.org. Deoband.org. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  51. ↑ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh ‘Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi’s Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al Manar Publishers. p. 50.
  52. ↑ Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom (First ed.). Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. p. 25.
  53. ↑ Sheikh-ul-Islam Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly page 97
  54. ↑ Sheikh-ul-Islam Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, page 83)
  55. ↑ Sheikh-ul-Islam Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, page 51)
  56. ↑ DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (First ed.). New York: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 61. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
  57. ↑ "WAHABISM EXPOSED!": Sheikh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al Wahhab". Hidaayah Islamic Foundation Sri Lanka. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  58. ↑ Zahawi (1994), pages 7-15.
  59. ↑ "Who was Mohammed ibn Abdul Wahab & what did he do? By Dr. Israr Ahmed". Youtube. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
  60. ↑ as-Salafi: 1
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Vasilʹev 1998: 13
  62. ↑ EI2
  63. ↑ Vasilʹev 1998: 14

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