Miscarriage

For usage in law, see Miscarriage of justice.
Miscarriage

A human embryo at about six weeks after conception, i.e. eight weeks from the last menstrual period (LMP)
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 O03
ICD-9 634
DiseasesDB 29
MedlinePlus 001488
eMedicine topic list
Patient UK Miscarriage
MeSH D000022

Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the natural death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently.[1][2] Some use the cutoff of 20 weeks of gestation after which fetal death is known as a stillbirth.[2] The most common symptoms of a miscarriage is vaginal bleeding.[1] This may occur with or without pain.[1] Tissue or clot like material may also come out the vagina.[3] Sadness, anxiety, and guilt may also occur.[4]

Risk factors for miscarriage include an older mother or father, previous miscarriage, exposure to tobacco smoke, obesity, diabetes, and drug or alcohol use, among others.[5][6] In those under the age of 35 the risk is about 10% while it is about 45% in those over the age of 40.[1] Risk begins to increase around the age of 30.[5] About 80% of miscarriages occur in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (the first trimester). The underlying mechanism in about of half of cases involves chromosomal abnormalities. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include an ectopic pregnancy and implantation bleeding.[1] Diagnosis of a miscarriage may involve checking to see if the cervix is open or closed, testing blood levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and an ultrasound.[7]

Prevention is occasionally possible with good prenatal care. This may involve avoiding drugs and alcohol, infectious diseases, and radiation.[8] No specific treatment is usually needed during the first 7 to 14 days.[6][9] Most women will complete the miscarriage without interventions.[6] Occasionally a procedure known as dilation and curettage (D&C) or the medication misoprostol is required to remove the failed pregnancy.[9] Women who are rhesus negative may require Rho(D) immune globulin.[6] Pain medication and emotional support may be beneficial.[9]

Miscarriage is the most common complication of early pregnancy.[10] Among women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is roughly 10% to 20% while rates among all conceptions is around 30% to 50%.[1][5] About 5% of women have two miscarriages in a row.[11]

Signs and symptoms

The most common symptom of a miscarriage is vaginal bleeding.[12] This can vary from light spotting or brownish discharge to heavy bleeding and bright red blood. The bleeding may come and go over several days. However, light vaginal bleeding is relatively common during the first trimester of pregnancy (the first 12 weeks) and does not necessarily indicate a miscarriage.

Bleeding during pregnancy may be referred to as a threatened miscarriage. Of women who seek clinical treatment for bleeding during pregnancy, about half will miscarry.[13] Symptoms other than bleeding are not statistically related.[12]

Miscarriage may be detected during an ultrasound exam, or through serial human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) testing. Women pregnant from assisted reproductive technology methods, and women with a history of miscarriage, may be monitored closely and so detection is sooner than women without such monitoring.

It is estimated about half of early miscarriages will be fully expelled naturally. Several medical options exist for managing documented nonviable pregnancies that have not been expelled naturally, such as medicinal treatment or a dilation and curettage (D&C) procedure. An ERPC, or evacuation of retained products of conception, may be performed to remove the remains of a pregnancy and the placental tissue from the uterus.[14]

Causes

Miscarriage may occur for many reasons, not all of which can be identified. Some of these causes include genetic, uterine, or hormonal abnormalities, reproductive tract infections, and tissue rejection. Miscarriage caused by invasive prenatal diagnosis (chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis) is rare (about 1%).[15][16]

First trimester

Most clinically apparent miscarriages (two-thirds to three-quarters in various studies) occur during the first trimester.[17][18] About 30% to 40% of all fertilized eggs miscarry, often before a woman knows she is pregnant.[1]

Chromosomal abnormalities are found in more than half of embryos miscarried in the first 13 weeks.[19] Chromosomal problems due to a parent's genes are, however, a possibility. This is more likely to have been the cause in the case of a woman suffering repeated miscarriages, or if one of the parents has a child or other relatives with birth defects.[20] Genetic problems are more likely to occur with older parents; this may account for the higher rates observed in older women.[21]

Progesterone deficiency may be another cause. Women diagnosed with low progesterone levels in the second half of their menstrual cycle (luteal phase) may be prescribed progesterone supplements, to be taken for the first trimester of pregnancy.[20] No study has shown that general first-trimester progesterone supplements reduce the risk however, (when a mother might already be losing her baby),[22] and even the identification of problems with the luteal phase as a contributing factor has been questioned.[23]

Second trimester

Second trimester losses may be due to uterine malformation, growths in the uterus (fibroids), or cervical problems.[20] These conditions also may contribute to premature birth.[17]

One study found that 19% of second trimester losses were caused by problems with the umbilical cord. Problems with the placenta also may account for a significant number of later-term miscarriages.[24]

Risk factors

Multiple pregnancy

Pregnancies of more than one fetus, i.e. twins, triplets, etc., are considered at increased risk. The more fetuses in the womb, the higher the risk.[20]

Intercurrent diseases

Several intercurrent diseases in pregnancy can potentially increase the risk of miscarriage, including:

Smoking

Tobacco (cigarette) smokers have an increased risk of miscarriage.[36] An increase in the rates also is associated with the father being a cigarette smoker.[37] The husband study observed a 4% increased risk for husbands who smoke fewer than 20 cigarettes/day, and an 81% increased risk for husbands who smoke 20 or more cigarettes/day.

Age

Further information: Advanced maternal age

The age of the mother is a significant risk factor. Miscarriage rates increase steadily with age, with more substantial increases after age 35.[38]

Several other factors have been correlated with higher rates in some research, but whether they cause the miscarriages is debated. No causal mechanism may be known, the studies showing a correlation may have been retrospective (beginning the study after the miscarriages occurred, which may introduce bias) rather than prospective (beginning the study before the women became pregnant), or both. A greater correlation has been shown in the following categories, however.

Morning sickness

Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP, or morning sickness) are associated with a decreased risk. Several proximate causes have been proposed for this relationship, but none are widely agreed upon.[39] NVP is generally interpreted as a defense mechanism which discourages the mother's ingestion of foods that are harmful to the fetus; according to this model, a lower frequency of miscarriage would be an expected consequence of the different food choices made by a women experiencing NVP.

Exercise

A study of more than 92,000 pregnant women found that most types of exercise (with the exception of swimming) correlated with a higher risk of miscarrying prior to 18 weeks. Increasing time spent on exercise was associated with a greater risk: an approximately 10% increased risk was seen with up to 1.5 hours per week of exercise, and a 200% increased risk was seen with more than 7 hours per week of exercise. However, the study found none of these risks to be statistically significant. High-impact exercise was especially associated with the increased risk. No relationship was found between exercise rates after the 18th week of pregnancy. The majority of miscarriages had already occurred at the time women were recruited for the study, and no information on nausea during pregnancy or exercise habits prior to pregnancy was collected.[40]

Caffeine

Caffeine consumption also has been correlated to miscarriage rates, at least at higher levels of intake. However, such higher rates have been found to be statistically significant only in certain circumstances. A 2007 study of more than 1,000 pregnant women found that those who reported consuming 200 mg or more of caffeine per day experienced a 25% rate, compared to 13% among women who reported no caffeine consumption. 200 mg of caffeine is present in 10 oz (300 mL) of coffee or 25 oz (740 mL) of tea. This study controlled for pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting (NVP or morning sickness): the increased rate for heavy caffeine users was seen regardless of how NVP affected the women. About half of the miscarriages had already occurred at the time women were recruited for the study.[41] A second 2007 study of approximately 2,400 pregnant women found that caffeine intake up to 200 mg per day was not associated with increased rates (the study did not include women who drank more than 200 mg per day past early pregnancy).[42] A prospective cohort study in 2009 found that light or moderate caffeine consumption (up to 300 mg per day) had no effect on pregnancy or miscarriage rates.[43]

Other

Transvaginal ultrasonography showing an abnormal mass in the gestational sac, next to a normal embryo (at bottom right) of a gestational age of 7 weeks with visible heartbeat. Masses like these are presumed to increase the risk of miscarriage.

Sexual intercourse during the first trimester has often been said or assumed by doctors to be a cause of miscarriage. However the association has never been proved or disproved.[44]

Cocaine use increases the rates.[36] Physical trauma, exposure to environmental toxins, and use of an IUD during the time of conception have also been linked to increased risk.[45]

Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) is one of the most commonly used approaches to treat high grade cervical dysplasia. A cohort study came to the result that women with a time interval from LEEP to pregnancy of less than 12 months compared with 12 months or more were at significantly increased risk for spontaneous abortion, with risk of spontaneous abortion of 18% compared with 4.6%, respectively.[46] On the other hand, no increased risk was identified for preterm birth after LEEP.[46]

Antidepressants, especially paroxetine and venlafaxine, can lead to a miscarriage.[47][48]

Diagnosis

A miscarriage may be confirmed via obstetric ultrasound and by the examination of the passed tissue. When looking for microscopic pathologic symptoms, one looks for the products of conception. Microscopically, these include villi, trophoblast, fetal parts, and background gestational changes in the endometrium. As many as half the embryos miscarried have a chromosomal abnormality.[49] When chromosomal abnormalities are found in more than one miscarriage, genetic testing of both parents may be done.[49]

Ultrasound criteria

A review article in The New England Journal of Medicine based on a consensus meeting of the Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound in America (SRU) has suggested that miscarriage should be diagnosed only if any of the following criteria are met upon ultrasonography visualization:[50]

In addition, signs upon ultrasonography that are suggested to be suspicious for miscarriage, but not diagnostic of it, include:[50]

Classification

The clinical presentation of a threatened miscarriage describes any bleeding seen during pregnancy prior to viability, that has yet to be assessed further. At investigation it may be found that the fetus remains viable and the pregnancy continues without further problems.

Alternatively the following terms are used to describe pregnancies that do not continue:

Transvaginal ultrasonography showing an empty sac, a gestational sac with a yolk sac but no embryo.
Transvaginal ultrasonography after an episode of heavy bleeding in an intrauterine pregnancy that had been confirmed by a previous ultrasononography. There is some widening between the uterine walls, but no sign of any gestational sac, thus in this case being diagnostic of a complete miscarriage.
Transvaginal ultrasonography, with some products of conception in the cervix (to the left in the image) and remnants of a gestational sac by the fundus (to the right in the image), indicating an incomplete miscarriage.

A fetus without heartbeat, yet located in the uterus, thereby being a missed miscarriage.

The following two terms consider wider complications or implications of a miscarriage:

The physical symptoms of a miscarriage vary according to the length of pregnancy:[57]

ICD10 codes

  • Habitual abortion
  • Incomplete abortion
  • Missed abortion
  • Threatened abortion

N96
O03.0-O06.4
O02.1
O20.0

Prevention

Prevention of miscarriage is mainly based on avoiding or mitigating any risk factors of it. Currently there is no known way to prevent an impending miscarriage. Identifying the cause of the miscarriage may help prevent it from happening again in a future pregnancy. In recurrent miscarriage, various tests are indicated to identify any underlying cause. Vitamin supplementation has not been found to be effective to prevent miscarriage.[58]

Management

Bleeding during early pregnancy is the most common symptom of both impending miscarriage and of ectopic pregnancy. Pain does not strongly correlate with the former, but is a common symptom of ectopic pregnancy.[12] Typically, in the case of blood loss, pain, or both, transvaginal ultrasound is performed. If a viable intrauterine pregnancy is not found with ultrasound, serial βHCG tests should be performed to rule out ectopic pregnancy, which is a life-threatening situation.[59][60]

If the bleeding is light, making an appointment to see one's doctor is recommended. If bleeding is heavy, there is considerable pain, or there is a fever, then seeking emergency medical attention is recommended.

Whilst bed rest has been advocated in the past to help ensure that a threatened pregnancy might continue, and in one study possibly helped when small subchorionic hematoma had been found on ultrasound scans,[61] the prevailing opinion is that this is of no proven benefit.[62]

There is not good evidence that the use of Rho(D) immune globulin after a spontaneous miscarriage is needed and a Cochrane review recommends that local practices be followed.[63] In the UK, Rho(D) immune globulin is recommended in Rh-ve women after 12 weeks gestational age and before 12 weeks gestational age in those who need surgery or medication to complete the miscarriage.[64]

Methods

No treatment is necessary for a diagnosis of complete miscarriage (so long as ectopic pregnancy is ruled out). In cases of an incomplete miscarriage, empty sac, or missed abortion there are three treatment options:

  • Vacuum aspiration, sometimes referred to as dilation and evacuation (D&E), uses aspiration to remove uterine contents through the cervix.
  • Dilation and curettage (D&C), which involves dilation (widening/opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of part of the lining of the uterus and/or contents of the uterus by scraping and scooping (curettage). D&C has a higher risk of complications compared to non-surgical treatment, including risk of injury to the cervix (e.g. cervical incompetence) and uterus, perforation of the uterus, and potential scarring of the intrauterine lining (Asherman's syndrome). This is an important consideration for women who would like to have children in the future and want to preserve their fertility and reduce the chance of future pregnancy complications.

Delayed miscarriage

In delayed miscarriage (also called missed abortion), the Royal Women's Hospital recommendations of management depend on the findings in ultrasonography:[67]

Incomplete miscarriage

In incomplete miscarriage, recommendations of management depend on the findings in ultrasonography:[67]

  • Administration of misoprostol to hasten passage of products of conception.
  • Admission to inpatient care for observation for a few hours or overnight until the majority of the products of conception has passed and bleeding subsided.
  • After apparent failure of misoprostol, a gynecologic examination should be done prior to considering surgical evacuation of the uterus or the patient leaving the hospital.

Prognosis

Psychological

A cemetery for miscarried babies

Some struggle emotionally following a miscarriage.[4] A questionnaire following a miscarried showed that more than half (55%) presented with significant psychological distress immediately, while 25% did at 3 months; 18% showed psychological symptoms at 6 months, and 11% at 1 year after miscarriage.[68]

Besides the feeling of loss, a lack of understanding by others is often important. People who have not experienced it themselves may find it difficult to empathize with what has occurred, and how upsetting it may be. This may lead to unrealistic expectations of the parents' recovery. The pregnancy and the miscarriage cease to be mentioned in conversations, often because the subject is too painful. This may make the woman feel particularly isolated. Inappropriate or insensitive responses from medical professionals can add to the distress and trauma experienced, so in some cases attempts have been made to draw up a standard code of practice.[69]

Interaction with pregnant women and newborn children may understandably be painful for parents who have experienced miscarriage. Sometimes this makes interaction with friends, acquaintances, and family very difficult.[70]

Later cardiovascular disease

There is a significant association between miscarriage and later development of coronary artery disease, but not of cerebrovascular disease.[71] The association does not imply causation, but may be a result of an underlying factor that increases the risk of both.

Epidemiology

Among women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is roughly 10% to 20% while rates among all conceptions is around 30% to 50%.[1][5]

Determining the precise rate is not possible as a large number of miscarriages occur before pregnancies become established and before women are aware they are pregnant.[72] In addition, women with bleeding in early pregnancy may attend for medical care more often than women not experiencing bleeding.[72] Some studies have attempted to account for this by recruiting women who are planning pregnancies and testing for very early pregnancy, although these would also not be representative of the wider population.[72] A systematic review found that the cumulative risk of miscarriage between 5 and 20 weeks of gestation varied from 11% to 22% in studies assessing miscarriage rates.[72] Up to the 13th week of pregnancy, the risk of miscarriage each week was around 2%, dropping to 1% in week 14 and reducing slowly between 14 and 20 weeks.[72]

The prevalence of miscarriage increases with the age of the mother[72][73] and the father.[74][75] In a Danish register-based study where the prevalence of miscarriage was 11%, the prevalence rose from 9% in women at 22 years of age to 84% by 48 years of age.[73]

Terminology

While miscarriage is a term for early pregnancy loss, it is also frequently known in medical literature as spontaneous abortion.[76] Those born before 24 weeks of gestation rarely survive.[77] However, the designation "fetal death" applies variably in different countries and contexts, sometimes incorporating weight, and gestational age from 16 weeks in Norway, 20 weeks in the US and Australia, 24 weeks in the UK to 26 weeks in Italy and Spain.[77][78][79] A fetus that died before birth after this gestational age may be referred to as a stillbirth.[77] Under UK law, all stillbirths should be registered,[80] although this does not apply to miscarriages.

The medical terminology applied to women's experiences during early pregnancy has changed over time.[81] Before the 1980s, health professionals used the phrase "spontaneous abortion" for a miscarriage and "induced abortion" for a willful termination of the pregnancy (abbreviated to TOP).[81][82] When terminations of pregnancy needed to be hidden, suspicion sometimes surrounded miscarriage, complicating an already sensitive language issue.[83] Research suggests that some women dislike the term spontaneous abortion for miscarriage, some are indifferent and some prefer it.[84] These preferences may reflect cultural differences.[84]

In the late 1980s and 1990s, doctors became more conscious of their language in relation to early pregnancy loss. Some medical authors advocated change to use of "miscarriage" instead of "spontaneous abortion" because they argued this would more respectful to women's feelings and help ease a distressing experience.[85][86][87] The change was being recommended by some by the profession in Britain in the late 1990s.[88] In 2005 the European Society for Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) published a paper aiming to facilitate a revision of nomenclature used to describe early pregnancy events.[54]

Historical analysis of the medical terminology applied to early pregnancy loss in Britain has shown that the use of "miscarriage" (instead of "spontaneous abortion") by doctors only occurred after changes in legislation (in the 1960s) and developments in ultrasound technology (in the early 1980s) allowed them to identify miscarriages.[81] in countries where pregnancy termination remains illegal doctors may still not distinguish between "spontaneous" and "induced" abortions in clinical practice.

Other animals

Miscarriage occurs in all animals that experience pregnancy, though in such contexts it is more commonly referred to as a "spontaneous abortion" (the two terms are synonymous). There are a variety of known risk factors for it in non-human animals. For example, in sheep, it may be caused by crowding through doors, or being chased by dogs.[89] In cows, spontaneous abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as Brucellosis or Campylobacter, but often can be controlled by vaccination.[90] Other diseases are also known to make animals susceptible. Spontaneous abortion occurs in pregnant prairie voles when their mate is removed and they are exposed to a new male,[91] an example of the Bruce effect, although this effect is seen less in wild populations than in the laboratory.[92] Female mice who had spontaneous abortions showed a sharp rise in the amount of time spent with unfamiliar males preceding the abortion than those who did not abort.[93]

See also

References

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