Mindfulness

Part of a series on
Mindfulness
Buddhism Sati Sampajañña Apramada Satipatthana Mindfulness of breathing Vipassanā Vipassana movement
Psychology Mindfulness Mindfulness (psychology) Mindfulness meditation Mindfulness-based stress reduction Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy Acceptance and commitment therapy
Other Buddhism and psychology
Synonyms Wakefulness Attention Alertness Prudence Conscientiousness Awareness Consciousness Observation
Category:Mindfulness

Mindfulness is "the intentional, accepting and non-judgemental focus of one's attention on the emotions, thoughts and sensations occurring in the present moment",^[1] which can be trained by meditational practices^[1] derived from Buddhist anapanasati.^[2]

The term "mindfulness" is derived from the Pali-term sati,^[3] "mindfulness", which is an essential element of Buddhist practice, including vipassana, satipaṭṭhāna and anapanasati.

Mindfulness practice is being employed in psychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions, including obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, and in the prevention of relapse in depression and drug addiction.^[4] It has gained worldwide popularity as a distinctive method to handle emotions.

Translations and definitions

Buddhism

Mindfulness meditation can be defined in many ways and can be used for a variety of different therapies. When defining mindfulness meditation, it is important to draw upon Buddhist psychological traditions and the developing scholarship within empirical psychology.^[5] It is also important to study the way that mindfulness meditation can be used. In the past, psychological research of mindfulness meditation has primarily been focused on the effects of mindfulness training, usually as a part of a clinical study, and less so on understanding the meaning and expression of mindfulness itself. When studied in the context of other established theoretical treatments of attention and awareness in daily life, it is proven that the practice of mindfulness meditation is more effective than its counterparts. Understanding the true meaning behind mindfulness and the correct ways of expressing and feeling true mindfulness are imperative to its success.^[6]

Sati and smṛti

The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. The Abhidhammattha-sangaha, a key abhidharma text from the Theravada tradition, defines sati as follows:

The word sati derives from a root meaning 'to remember,' but as a mental factor it signifies presence of mind, attentiveness to the present, rather than the faculty of memory regarding the past. It has the characteristic of not wobbling, i.e. not floating away from the object. Its function is absence of confusion or non-forgetfulness. It is manifested as guardianship, or as the state of confronting an objective field. Its proximate cause is strong perception (thirasaññā) or the four foundations of mindfulness.^[7]

Sati means not only, "moment to moment awareness of present events," but also, "remembering to be aware of something or to do something at a designated time in the future".^{[note 1]} In fact, "the primary connotation of this Sanskrit term [smrti] (and its corresponding Pali term sati) is recollection".^{[note 1]}

Translation

The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".^[8] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "Correct meditation",^[9] Davids explained,

sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."^[10]

Alternate translations

John D. Dunne asserts that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.^[11] Bhikkhu Bodhi also points to the meaning of "sati" as "memory".^{[12][note 2]} The terms sati/smriti have also been translated as:

Psychology

According to Brown, Ryan, and Creswell, definitions of mindfulness are typically selectively interpreted based on who is studying it and how it is applied. Some have viewed mindfulness as a mental state, while others have viewed it as a set of skills and techniques.^[13][14] A distinction can also be made between the state of mindfulness and the trait of mindfulness.^[15]

According to David S. Black, whereas "mindfulness" originally was associated with esoteric beliefs and religion, and "a capacity attainable only by certain people",^[16] scientific researchers have translated the term into measurable terms, providing a valid operational definition of mindfulness.^{[17][note 3]} Black mentions three possible domains:^[17]

1. A trait, a dispositional characteristic (a relatively long lasting trait),^[17] a person's tendency to more frequently enter into and more easily abide in mindful states;^[18]
2. A state, an outcome (a state of awareness resulting from mindfulness training),^[17] being in a state of present-moment awareness;^[18]
3. A practice (mindfulness meditation practice itself)^{[note 4]}

Trait

• "A quality of consciousness manifest in, but not isomorphic with, the activities through which it is enhanced."^[13][14]

State

• "A kind of nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is".^[22]

Practice

• "Mindfulness is a way of paying attention that originated in Eastern meditation practices^[23]
• "Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally"^[24]
• "Bringing one’s complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis"^[24]

Other usages

The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (ca. 1200).^[25]

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware".^{[web 1]} Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness,^[26][27] attention,^{[web 2]} alertness,^{[web 3]} prudence,^{[web 3]} conscientiousness,^{[web 3]} awareness,^{[web 1]} consciousness,^{[web 1]} observation.^{[web 1]}

Historical development

Buddhism

Mindfulness is founded on modern^{[note 5]} vipassana, the training of sati, which means "moment to moment awareness of present events", but also "remembering to be aware of something".^[30] It leads to insight into the true nature of reality,^[31] namely the three marks of existence, the impermanence of and the unsatisfactoriness of every conditioned thing that exists, and non-self. With this insight, the practitioner becomes a socalled Sotāpanna, a "stream-enterer", the first stage on the path to liberation.^[32][33]

According to the great scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids, the doctrine of mindfulness is "perhaps the most important" after the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Rhys Davids viewed the teachings of Gotama as a rational technique for self-actualization and rejected a few parts of it, mainly the doctrine of rebirth, as residual superstitions.^[34]

Kabat-Zinn himself refers to Thoreau as a predecessor of the interest in mindfulness, together with the other eminent Transcendentalists Emerson and Whitman:^[35]

[The collective experience^{[note 6]} of sages, yogis, and Zen masters] offers a view of the world which is complementary to the predominantly reductionist and materialistic one currently dominating Western thought and institutions. But this view is neither particularly "Eastern" nor mystical. Thoreau saw the same problem with our ordinary mind state in New England in 1846 and wrote with great passion about its unfortunate consequences.^[35]

The forms of Asian religion and spirituality which were introduced in the west were already influenced by western ideas early on. Transcendentalism was closely connected to the Unitarian Church,^[36] which collaborated with Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) and his Brahmo Samaj.^[36] He found that Unitarianism came closest to true Christianity,^[36] and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians.^[37] This influence worked through on Vivekananda, whose modern but idiosyncratic interpretation of Hinduism became widely popular in the west.^[38] Vipassana meditation, presented as a centuries-old meditation system, was a 19th-century reinvention,^[39] which gained popularity in south-east due to the accessibility of the Buddhist sutras through English translations from the Pali Text Society.^[28] It was brought to western attention in the 19th century by the Theosophical Society.^[28][40] Zen Buddhism first gained popularity in the west through the writings of D.T. Suzuki, who attempted to present a modern interpretation of Zen, adjusted to western tastes.^[28][28]

Jon Kabat-Zinn and MBSR

In 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts to treat the chronically ill.^[41] This program sparked the application of mindfulness ideas and practices in Medicine^[42]:230–1 for the treatment of a variety of conditions in both healthy and unhealthy people. MBSR and similar programs are now widely applied in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.

Mindfulness practices were inspired mainly by teachings from the Eastern World, particularly from Buddhist traditions. One of MBSR's techniques - the "body scan" - was derived from a meditation practice ("sweeping") of the Burmese U Ba Khin tradition, as taught by S. N. Goenka in his Vipassana retreats, which he began in 1976.

Popularisation - "Mindfulness Movement"

Mindfulness is gaining a growing popularity as a practice in daily life, apart from buddhist insight meditation and its application in clinical psychology.^[43] Mindfulness may be seen as a mode of being,^[44] and can be practiced outside a formal setting.^[45]

Buddhism

Sati is one of the seven factors of enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the noble eightfold path.

Mindfulness is an antidote to delusion and is considered as a 'power' (Pali: bala) which contributes to the attainment of nirvana. This faculty becomes a power in particular when it is coupled with clear comprehension of whatever is taking place. Nirvana is a state of being in which greed, hatred and delusion (Pali: moha) have been overcome and abandoned, and are absent from the mind.

Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna, and vipassana

Anapanasati is mindfulness of breathing. "Sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation. Anapanasati means to feel the sensations caused by the movements of the breath in the body. The Anapanasati Sutta gives an exposition on this practice.^{[note 7]}

Satipaṭṭhāna is the establishment of mindfulness in one's day-to-day life, maintaining as much as possible a calm awareness of one's body, feelings, mind, and dharmas. The practice of mindfulness supports analysis resulting in the arising of wisdom (Pali: paññā, Sanskrit: prajñā).^{[note 8]}

Vipassanā is insight into the true nature of reality,^[31] namely the three marks of existence, namely the impermanence of and the unsatisfactoriness of every conditioned thing that exists, and non-self. With this insight, the practitioner becomes a so-called Sotāpanna, a "stream-enterer", the first stage on the path to liberation.^{[32][33][note 9]}

In the Theravadin context, Vipassanā is commonly used as one of two poles for the categorization of types of Buddhist practice, the other being samatha (Pāli; Sanskrit: śamatha).^[48] According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, samatha is used as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads to liberation.

Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement, modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices,^[49] which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa

In Buddhist practice, "mindfulness" also includes samprajaña, meaning "clear comprehension" and apramāda meaning "vigilance".^{[50][note 10]} All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.

In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:

He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.^{[51][note 11]}

"Bare attention"

Georges Dreyfus has expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in Buddhist context means also "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information.^{[52][note 12]} Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention".^{[web 4][note 13]} Jay Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, calling to mind and vigilantly retaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality – at least in the context of Buddhism from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.^[53]

Psychology

Mindfulness-practice

According to Steven F. Hick, mindfulness practice involves both formal and informal meditation practices, and nonmeditation-based exercises.^[54] Formal mindfulness, or meditation, is the practice of sustaining attention on body, breath or sensations, or whatever arises in each moment.^[54] Informal mindfulness is the application of mindful attention in everyday life.^[54] Nonmeditation-based exercises are specifically used in Dialectical Behavior Therapy and in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. ^[54]

Mindfulness meditation

Mindfulness meditation is practiced sitting with eyes closed, cross-legged on a cushion, or on a chair, with the back straight.^{[web 5]} Attention is put on the movement of the abdomen when breathing in and out,^[2] or on the awareness of the breath as it goes in and out the nostrils.^[55] As thoughts come up, one returns to focusing on breathing. One passively notices one's mind has wandered, but in an accepting, non-judgmental way. Meditators start with short periods of 10 minutes or so a day. As one practices regularly, it becomes easier to keep the attention focused on breathing.^[43] Eventually awareness of the breath can be extended into awareness of thoughts, feelings and actions.^[55]

Research on the neural perspective of how mindfulness meditation works suggests that it exerts its effects in components of attention regulation, body awareness, emotional regulation and change in perspective of self.^[56] Neuroimaging techniques suggest that mindfulness practices such as mindfulness meditation are associated with “changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network and default mode network structures."^[57] These neuroplastic findings will lead to future and more in-depth research on treatment of mental health disorders.

Exercises

A famous exercise, introduced by Kabat-Zinn in his MBSR-program, is the mindful tasting of a raisin,^[58] in which a raisin is being tasted and eaten mindfully.^{[59][note 14]}

Clinical applications

Clinical psychology and psychiatry since the 1970s have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on mindfulness for helping people suffering from a variety of psychological conditions.^[60] Recent studies show that mindfulness meditation has several mental health benefits, such as bringing about reductions in depression, anxiety and stress.^{[61][62][63][64]} Mindfulness meditation also appears to be effective in treating substance use disorders,^[65][66] and may also be effective in treating psychosis.^[67][68][69] Further, mindfulness meditation has been shown to bring about healthy structural changes in the brain,^[70][71][57] and may also prevent or delay the onset of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.^[72]

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a cognitive behavioral therapy program^[73] developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness, and yoga to help people become more mindful.^[43]

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a psychological therapy designed to aid in preventing the relapse of depression, specifically in individuals with Major depressive disorder (MDD).^[74] It uses traditional cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) methods and adds in newer psychological strategies such as mindfulness and mindfulness meditation. Cognitive methods can include educating the participant about depression.^[75] In the study produced by Kuyken et al., a randomized control trial compared MBCT and antidepressants with a 15-month follow up. Post treatment reactivity was assessed one month after the treatment sessions. After treatment, it was proven that there was a statistical significance in the levels of depression relapse between those who underwent MBCT and those who didn’t. Through this study we learn not only the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation, but also best practices for using it to treat depression.^[76]

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a form of clinical behavior analysis (CBA)^[77] used in psychotherapy. It is an empirically-based psychological intervention that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies mixed in different ways^[78] with commitment and behavior-change strategies, to increase psychological flexibility. It was developed in the late 1980s^[79] by Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson, and Kirk Strosahl.^[80]

Mindfulness meditation has proven to have many positive effects on the body, the most important of which is improved function of the immune system. In a study conducted by Davidson et al., researchers looked at 31 subjects, 25 of whom practiced mindfulness meditation for 8-weeks, and 16 of whom were in a control group. At the end of the study, the participants were infected with influenza, and it was shown that there was a statistical difference in the strength of the participants' immune systems between those who practiced meditation and those who didn't - the participants who were in the mindfulness meditation group were significantly less likely to develop influenza after exposure.^[81]

For patients who suffer from chronic pain, mindfulness meditation has been proven to help alleviate this.. This method has been shown to work in several studies, the most important of which was conducted by Kabat-Zinn. In this study, patients were immersed into a 10-Week Stress Reduction and Relaxation program in order to help manage and alleviate chronic pain. Of these patients, 51 had documented not improving with traditional medical care. After 10-weeks of the program and the practice of mindfulness mediation, 65% of these patients showed a reduction in the amount of pain they felt on a regular basis.^[82]

"Mindfulness Movement"

Mindfulness is gaining a growing popularity as a practice in daily life, apart from buddhist insight meditation and its application in clinical psychology.^[43] In this context mindfulness is defined as moment-by-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, characterized mainly by "acceptance" - attention to thoughts and feelings without judging whether they are right or wrong. Mindfulness focuses the human brain on what is being sensed at each moment, instead of on its normal rumination on the past or on the future.^[83]

The "Mindfulness Movement"^[2] has entered the mainstream, mainly through the work of Jon Kabat-Zinn^[43] and his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, launched at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in 1979. Since that time, clinical studies have documented the physical and mental health benefits of mindfulness in general, and MBSR in particular. Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adapted in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.

According to Jon Kabat-Zinn the practice of mindfulness may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary.^[84] Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins.^[85]

Mindfulness has come to be seen as a mode of being,^[44] rather than a formal meditation practice, which can be practiced and maintained outside a formal setting.^[45]

Schools

In 2012 Congressman Tim Ryan of Ohio published A Mindful Nation, and has received a $1 million federal grant to teach mindfulness in schools in his home district.^[43]

In 2000, The Inner Kids Program, a mindfulness-based program developed for children, was introduced into public and private school curricula in the greater Los Angeles area.^[86]

MindUP, a classroom-based program spearheaded by Goldie Hawn's Hawn Foundation, teaches students to self-regulate behavior and mindfully engage in focused concentration required for academic success. For the last decade, MindUP has trained teachers in over 1,000 schools in cities from Arizona to Washington.^[87]

The Holistic Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that created an in-school mindfulness program called Mindful Moment, is currently serving almost 350 students daily at Robert W. Coleman Elementary School and approximately 1300 students at Patterson Park High School in Baltimore, Maryland. At Patterson High School, the Mindful Moment program engages the school's faculty along with the students during a 15-minute mindfulness practice at the beginning and end of each school day.

Mindful Life Project, a non-profit 501(c)3 based out of Richmond, California, teaches mindfulness to elementary school students in underserved schools in the South Richmond school district. Utilizing Mindful Schools curriculum, “Rise-Up” is a regular school day intervention program serving 430 students weekly, while “Mindful Community” is currently implemented at six South Richmond partner schools. These in-school mindfulness programs have been endorsed by Richmond Mayor Gayle McLaughlin, who has recommended additional funding to expand the program in order to serve all Richmond youth.

Mindfulness meditation has also been incorporated in lower level academics such as elementary and middle schools through a program called Quiet Time that was developed by the David Lynch Foundation. The program involves two 15-minute periods of meditation time a day. The program was piloted in the San Francisco Bay Area of California and was implemented in over 200 schools. The program is school-wide and has been found beneficial in decreasing reports of stress and increasing academic and job performance in students and teachers.^[88]

A study enrolled college students in a course about mindfulness that included guided mindfulness meditation as part of the curriculum. After the semester, pre- and post-levels for different aspects of mental health were compared and students were found to have more non-judgmental stances towards their thoughts and feelings. This is believed to result better stress coping skills, improved academic performance and quality of life.^[89] Furthermore, scores continued to improve for the weeks following the end of the course, demonstrating the long-lasting effects of mindfulness meditation.

Business

The effects of mindfulness have been found to be beneficial in a wide range of settings. Most notably, many large corporations have been incorporating practicing mindfulness into their culture. Companies such as Apple, Procter & Gamble, General Mills and many others offer mindfulness coaching, meditation breaks and other resources to their employees.^[90] Mindfulness has been found to result in better employee well-being, lower levels of frustration, and an improved overall work environment. Additionally, mindful employees have lower levels of absenteeism, burnout and other negative results.

In the U.S. business world, interest in mindfulness is rising dramatically. This shows in the popular business press, including books such as Awake at Work (Carroll, 2004) and Resonant Leadership: Renewing Yourself and Connecting with Others Through Mindfulness, Hope, and Compassion.^[91]

In addition, the website of the University of Massachusetts Medical School Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society and Carroll’s (2007) book, The Mindful Leader, mention many companies that have provided training programs in mindfulness. These include Fortune 500 companies (such as Raytheon, Procter & Gamble, Monsanto, General Mills, and Comcast) and others (such as BASF Bioresearch, Bose, New Balance, Unilever, and Nortel Networks). Executives who “meditate and consider such a practice beneficial to running a corporation”^[92] have included the chairman of the Ford Motor Company, Bill Ford, Jr.; a managing partner of McKinsey & Co., Michael Rennie; and Aetna International’s former chairman, Michael Stephen. A professional-development program — “Mindfulness at Monsanto” — was started at Monsanto corporation by its CEO, Robert Shapiro.

Law

Legal and law enforcement organizations are also showing interest in mindfulness:^[93]

• Harvard Law School’s Program on Negotiation hosted a workshop on “Mindfulness in the Law & Alternative Dispute Resolution.”^[94]
• Many law firms offer mindfulness classes.^[92]

Prison-programs

Mindfulness has been taught in prisons, reducing hostility and mood disturbance among inmates, and improving their self-esteem.^[95] Additional studies indicate that mindfulness interventions can result in significant reductions in anger, reductions in substance use, increased relaxation capacity, self-regulation and optimism.^[96][97]

Government

Many government organizations offer mindfulness training.^[98] Coping Strategies is an example of a program utilized by United States Armed Forces personnel. The British Parliament organised a mindfulness-session for its members in 2014, led by Ruby Wax.^{[web 6]}

Scientific research

Research on the effects of mindfulness has been ongoing over the last twenty or thirty years, with a surge of interest over the last decade in particular.^[99][100] According to Khoury, Lecomte and Fortin, mindfulness-based therapies are moderately effective in pre-post studies, superior to some treatments such as psychoeducation, supportive therapy, relaxation, imagery, and art-therapy, but not more effective than traditional cognitive behavioral therapy.^[101]

The US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality concluded in 2014 that although "Meditation programs, in particular mindfulness programs, reduce multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress",^[102]:vii including anxiety, depression, and perceived stress/general distress,^[102]:130 there is:

[N]o effect or insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight. We found no evidence that meditation programs were better than any active treatment (ie, drugs, exercise, and other behavioral therapies).^{[web 7][note 15]}

Controversies

The popularisation of mindfulness as a "commodity"^[103] has been criticised, being termed "McMindfulness" by some critics.^{[web 8][web 9][104]} According to Safran, the popularity of mindfulness is the result of a marketing strategy:^[103] "McMindfulness is the marketing of a constructed dream; an idealized lifestyle; an identity makeover."^{[103][105][106]}

According to Purser and Loy, mindfulness is not being used as a means to awaken to insight in the "unwholesome roots of greed, ill will and delusion,"^{[web 8]} but reshaped into a "banal, therapeutic, self-help technique" that has the opposite effect of reinforcing those passions.^{[web 8]} While mindfulness is marketed as a means to reduce stress, in a Buddhist context it is part of an all-embracing ethical program to foster "wise action, social harmony, and compassion."^{[web 8]} The privatisation of mindfulness neglects the societal and organisational causes of stress and discomfort, instead propagating adaptation to these circumstances.^{[web 8]} According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "|[A]bsent a sharp social critique, Buddhist practices could easily be used to justify and stabilize the status quo, becoming a reinforcement of consumer capitalism."^{[web 8]} The popularity of this new brand of mindfulness has resulted in the commercialization of meditation through self-help books, guided meditation classes, and mindfulness retreats.

Related concepts

Choiceless Awareness

Choiceless Awareness is posited in philosophy, psychology, and spirituality to be the state of unpremeditated, complete awareness of the present without preference, effort, or compulsion. The term was popularized in mid-20th-century by Jiddu Krishnamurti, in whose philosophy it signifies a main theme. Similar or related concepts had been previously developed in several religious or spiritual traditions; the term or others like it has also been used to describe traditional and contemporary secular and religious meditation practices. However, Krishnamurti's approach to Choiceless Awareness was unique, and differs from both pre-existing and later-developed notions.

Nonviolent Communication

Nonviolent Communication (abbreviated NVC, also called Compassionate Communication or Collaborative Communication^[107][108]) is a communication process developed by Marshall Rosenberg beginning in the 1960s.^[109] NVC often functions as a conflict resolution process. It focuses on three aspects of communication: self-empathy (defined as a deep and compassionate awareness of one's own inner experience), empathy (defined as listening to another with deep compassion), and honest self-expression (defined as expressing oneself authentically in a way that is likely to inspire compassion in others).

NVC is based on the idea that all human beings have the capacity for compassion and only resort to violence or behavior that harms others when they don't recognize more effective strategies for meeting needs.^[110] Habits of thinking and speaking that lead to the use of violence (psychological and physical) are learned through culture. NVC theory supposes all human behavior stems from attempts to meet universal human needs and that these needs are never in conflict. Rather, conflict arises when strategies for meeting needs clash. NVC proposes that if people can identify their needs, the needs of others, and the feelings that surround these needs, harmony can be achieved.^[111]

While NVC is ostensibly taught as a process of communication designed to improve compassionate connection to others, it has also been interpreted as a spiritual practice, a set of values, a parenting technique, an educational method and a worldview.

Alexander Technique

The Alexander Technique is a re-educational, movement based self observational method of unifying body and mind. It can be thought of as active mindfulness, in that fresh choices are presented, assimilated and responded to on receipt of stimulus. By addressing underlying habitual thought patterns, you are given the option of responding in a fresh and constructive manner. John Dewey referred to the practice of Alexander Technique as "thinking in action".

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Published sources

Web-sources

Further reading

Practice

Buddhism

• Nyanaponika, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: Satipaṭṭhāna : a Handbook of Mental Training Based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness, with an Anthology of Relevant Texts Translated from the Pali and Sanskrit 
• William Hart (2011), The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation As Taught by S. N. Goenka, Pariyatti

Psychology

• Didonna, Fabrizio (2008), Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness, Springer Science & Business Media 
• Amanda Ie, Christelle T. Ngnoumen, Ellen J. Langer (2014), The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness (Two Volumes), John Wiley & Sons

Popular

• Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. Hyperion Books, 2005. ISBN 1-4013-0778-7

History

• Wilson, Jeff (2014), Mindful America: Meditation and the Mutual Transformation of Buddhism and American Culture, Oxford University Press 
• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 

Critical

• Sharf, Robert H. (1995), "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF), NUMEN, vol.42 (1995) 
• Carrette, Jeremy R.; King, Richard (2005), Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, Psychology Press 

External links

Look up 念 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• David S. Black, A Brief Definition of Mindfulness, Mindfulness Research Guide
• Mindfull (magazine) sampler, about Jon Kabat-Zinn
• Jon Kabat-Zinn on Mindfulness (Youtube link)

Buddhism topics Foundations Three Jewels Buddha Dharma Sangha Four Noble Truths Noble Eightfold Path Nirvana Middle Way The Buddha Tathāgata Birthday Four sights Physical characteristics Footprint Iconography Films Miracles Family Suddhodana (father) Maya (mother) Mahapajapati Gotami (adoptive mother) Yasodhara (wife) Rahula (son) Places where the Buddha stayed Buddha in world religions Key concepts Three Marks of Existence Impermanence Suffering Not-self Dependent Origination Five Aggregates Karma Rebirth Saṃsāra Saṅkhāra Defilements Ignorance Craving Five Hindrances Ten Fetters Faculties Enlightenment (Awakening) Parinirvana Thusness Two truths doctrine Emptiness Bodhicitta Bodhisattva Buddha-nature Mindstream Dzogchen Cosmology Ten spiritual realms Six Realms Heaven Human realm Asura realm Hungry Ghost realm Animal realm Hell Three planes of existence Practices Refuge Buddhist devotion Puja Offerings Prostration Chanting Merit Paritta Generosity Renunciation Morality Precepts Bodhisattva vow Prātimokṣa Threefold Training Morality Concentration Wisdom Four Divine Abidings Loving-kindness Compassion Sympathetic joy Equanimity Perfections Enlightenment Qualities Seven Factors of Enlightenment Sati Dhamma vicaya Pīti Passaddhi Effort Four Right Exertions Bases of Power Five Strengths Faith Mindfulness Satipatthana Jhāna/Dhyāna Bhavana Satya Sacca Meditation Mantras Kammaṭṭhāna Recollection Smarana Mindfulness of Breathing Serenity meditation Insight meditation Shikantaza Zazen Kōan Mandala Tonglen Tantra Tertön Terma Attainment Types of Buddha Private Buddha Bodhisattva Four stages of enlightenment Stream-enterer Once-returner Non-returner Arhat Monasticism Monk Nun Novice monk Novice nun Anagarika Ajahn Sayadaw Zen master Rōshi Lama Rinpoche Geshe Tulku Householder Lay follower Disciple Major figures Gautama Buddha Kaundinya Assaji Sāriputta Mahamoggallāna Mulian Ananda Maha Kassapa Anuruddha Mahakaccana Nanda Subhuti Punna Upali Mahapajapati Gotami Khema Uppalavanna Asita Channa Yasa Buddhaghosa Nagasena Bodhidharma Nagarjuna Asanga Vasubandhu Atiśa Padmasambhava Nichiren Ambedkar Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Karmapa Naropa Texts Tripiṭaka Mahāyāna sūtras Pāli Canon Chinese Buddhist canon Tibetan Buddhist canon Branches Theravada Mahayana Zen Pure Land Tiantai Nichiren Madhyamaka Yogacara Navayana Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism Shingon Early Buddhist schools Pre-sectarian Buddhism Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna Countries Bangladesh Bhutan Burma Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Mongolia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Russia Singapore Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Middle East Iran Western countries Argentina Australia Brazil France United Kingdom United States Venezuela History Timeline Ashoka Buddhist councils History of Buddhism in India Decline of Buddhism in India Greco-Buddhism Buddhism and the Roman world Buddhism in the West Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Persecution of Buddhists Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal Buddhist crisis (Vietnam) Women in Buddhism Buddhism in the West Buddhist modernism Vipassana movement 969 Movement Philosophy Abhidharma Logic Buddhology Eschatology Reality God Secular Buddhism Humanism Eight Consciousnesses Engaged Buddhism Socialism Economics Atomism Evolution Ethics The unanswered questions Culture Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Temple of the Tooth Art Greco-Buddhist art Poetry Buddha statue Budai Symbolism Dharmacakra Flag Bhavacakra Swastika Thangka Prayer wheel Mala Mudra Mantra Om mani padme hum Funeral Music Holidays Vesak Uposatha Magha Puja Asalha Puja Rains retreat Monastic robe Architecture Vihara Wat Stupa Pagoda Candi Thai temple art and architecture Pilgrimage Lumbini Maya Devi Temple Bodh Gaya Sarnath Kushinagar Bodhi Tree Mahabodhi Temple Calendar Cuisine Vegetarianism Miscellaneous Lineage Maitreya Avalokiteśvara Guanyin Amitābha Brahmā Māra Comparison of the rise of Buddhism in China and Japan Dhammapada Vinaya Sutra Koliya Hinayana Liturgical languages Pali Sanskrit Dharma talk Kalpa Higher Knowledge Iddhi (Psychic powers) Siddhi (Psychic powers) Buddhism and: Science Psychology Hinduism Jainism East Asian religions Christianity Theosophy Gnosticism Violence Western philosophy Lists Buddhas Twenty-eight Buddhas Bodhisattvas Buddhists Suttas Books Temples Candi Outline Portal Category Glossary Index Commons Wikiquote

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