Manusmṛti

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The Manu smṛti (or "Laws of Manu", Sanskrit Manusmṛti मनुस्मृति; also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism.^[1]

The text presents itself as a discourse given by Manu, the progenitor of mankind, to a group of seers, or rishis, who beseech him to tell them the "law of all the social classes" (1.2), after the great floods some 10,000 years ago.^[2] Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it. According to Hindu tradition, the Manu smruti records the words of Brahma.^[3]

The Sanskrit text was edited in 1913 by P.H. Pandya and in 1920 by J.R. Gharpure. The text was first translated into English (from manuscripts) in 1794 by Sir William Jones.

Date and context

The text shows the obvious influence of previous Dharmasutras and Arthashastras. In particular, the Manusmriti was the first to adopt the term vyavaharapadas. These eighteen "Titles of Law" or "Grounds for Litigation" make up more than one fifth of the work and deal primarily with matters of the king, state, and judicial procedure. The dharma class of texts were noteworthy because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasized dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.^[4]

Sir William Jones assigned Manusmriti to a period of 1250 BCE. Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel assigned it to 1000 BCE.^[5] In present form, Manusmriti is commonly dated to 5th century BCE.^[6][7][8] Some scholars have estimated to be anywhere between 200 BCE and 200 CE.^[9][10] Most scholars consider the text a composite put together over a long period of time, although Olivelle (2010) argues that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author or chairman.^[11] However, David Frawley and Grahm Hancock give the date of recitation of Manusmrti as some 10,000 years ago after the great floods in India.^[2] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.^[12] In Thapar's view,"The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."^[13]

Structure

The original treatise consisted of one thousand chapters of law, polity, and pleasure given by Brahmā. His son, Manu, learns these lessons and proceeds to teach his own students, including Bhrigu. Bhrigu then relays this information in the Manu Smriti, to an audience of his own pupils.^[14]

This original narrative was subdivided later into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.^[15] The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu also introduced a unique “transitional verse” which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.

The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu’s disciple, Bhrigu, and an audience of his own students. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu’s teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first to ask about how Brahmins can be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.^[16]

Contents

This Table of Contents comes from Olivelle's translation of the Manu Smriti and provides the transitional verses between each subject:^[17]

• 1. Origin of the World (1.1-119)

• 2. Sources of the Law (2.1-24)

"I have described to you above succinctly the source of the Law, as also the origin of this whole world. Learn now the Laws of the social classes." (2.25)

• 3. Dharma of the Four Varnas (2.25-11.266)

• 3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.25-10.131)

• 3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.26-9.336)

• 3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.26-6.97)

"I have explained to you above the fourfold Law of Brahmins, a Law that is holy and brings imperishable rewards after death. Listen now to the Law of kings." (6.97)

• 3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.1-9.325)

"I have described above in its entirety the eternal rules of action for the king. What follows, one should understand, are the rules of action for the Vaiśyas and Śūdras in their proper order." (9.325)

• 3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vaiśyas and Śūdras (9.325-36)

"I have described above the splendid rules of action for the social classes outside times of adversity. Listen now to the rules for them in the proper order for times of adversity." (9.336)

• 3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1-129)

"I have described above the entire set of rules pertaining to the Law of the four classes. Next, I will explain the splendid rules pertaining to penance." (10.131)

• 3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1-265)

"You have described this Law for the four classes in its entirety, O Sinless One! Teach us accurately the ultimate consummation of the fruits of actions." (12.1)

• 4. Determination Regarding Engagement in Action (12.3-116)

"Bhrgu, the son of Manu and the very embodiment of the Law, said to those great seers: ‘Listen to the determination with respect to engagement in action.’" (12.2)

• 4.1 Fruits of Action (12.3-81)

"I have declared to you above all the fruits arising from actions. Listen now to these rules of action for a Brahmin, rules that secure the supreme good." (12.82)

• 4.2 Rules of Action for Supreme God (12.83-115)

"I have explained to you above all the best means of securing the supreme good. A Brahmin who does not deviate from them obtains the highest state." (12.116)

Nature and purpose

The Manusmriti is compiled with a focus on the "shoulds" of dharma rather than on the actuality of everyday practice in India after the decline and collapse of the Maurya Empire. Still, its practical application should not be underestimated. Through intermediate forces such as the instruction of scholars, the teachings did indeed have indirect effect on major segments of the Indian population. It is also an invaluable point of common reference in scholarly debates.^[18]

It seems likely that the book was written in a manner which was very mindful to the dangers facing the Brahmin community during a time of much change and social upheaval. A renewed alliance between the Brahmin and Kṣatra communities is clearly a goal reflected in the introduction of the vyavahārapadas.^[19] The emphasis which this topic receives can be seen as an offering of solidarity from the religious community to the ruling class.

Commentaries

There are numerous classical commentaries on the Manusmṛti written in the medieval period.

Bhāruci

Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century,^[20] Olivelle places him in the 8th century,^[21] and Derrett places him between 600-650 CE.^[21] From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.

Medhātithi

Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between about 820 and 1050.^[22]

Modern reception and Criticism

The Manusmrti is considered an important source for the sociological history of ancient and medieval India. Since it forms the basis of the varnas, economics, etc. it has been subject to appraisal and criticism.^[23] In 1927, B. R. Ambedkar had burned a copy of Manusmrti.^[24][25]

The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the European philologists. It was first translated into English by Sir William Jones. His version was published in 1794.^[26] He considered Manu's laws to be older than the laws of Solon as well as the Lycurgus. He also mentions that the latter had been adopted from Manu. William Jones writes:-

The laws of Manu very probably were considerably older than those of Solon or even of Lycurgus, although the promulgation of them, before they were reduced to writing, might have been covered with the first monarchies established in Egypt and India.^[27]

British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements.^[28]

In his book Bible in India, Louis Jacolliot writes that:-

Manu Smriti was the foundation upon which the Egyptian, the Persian, the Grecian and the Roman codes of law were built and that the influence of Manu is still felt in Europe.^[27]

The "Law of Manu" was cited favorably by Friedrich Nietzsche. He:

• deemed it "an incomparably spiritual and superior work" to the Christian Bible.
• observed that "the sun shines on the whole book" and attributed its ethical perspective to "the noble classes, the philosophers and warriors, [who] stand above the mass."^[29]
• endorsed the political exclusion that Manu's system was considered to bring.^[30]
• considered the caste system to be a good idea, and stated that "caste-order, order of rank is just a formula for the supreme law of life itself", a "natural order, lawfulness par excellence".^[31][32]
• wrote that 'To prepare a book of law in the style of Manu means to give a people the right to become master one day, to become perfect, - to aspire to the highest art of life.'^[32]

The Law of Manu was also cited unfavorably by Nietzsche. He:

• 'denounce[d] the way Manu dealt with the outcastes, saying that "perhaps there is nothing that outrages our feelings more" ... .' ^[33]
• wrote: 'Toward a critique of the Manu Law Book[:] The whole book is founded on the holy lie. ... We find a species of man, the priestly, which ... believes in its own superiority ... . ... Power through the lie ... . Fanatics do not invent such carefully thought-out systems of oppression—The most cold-blooded reflection was at work here ... .' ^[34]

In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar asserted that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.^[35] However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. Thapar writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.^[36] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"^[37] Hinduism does not evangelize.^[38]

A prominent Hindu revivalist and reformist Swami Dayananda Saraswati^[39] held the text to be authentic and authoritative. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami,.^[40] The founder of the modern day Hare Krishna Movement in the west has said "...Even up to today, those who are Hindu follow the Manu-samhita." Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant,^[41] P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan among others.

Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living."^[42] Contra Nietzsche, W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smṛti—a 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian Übermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.^[43]

Editions and translations

• The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.
• Translation by G. Bühler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV). Oxford.  Available online as The Laws of Manu
• Olivelle, Patrick (2004). The Law Code of Manu. New York: OUP. ISBN 0192802712. 
• Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-17146-2. 
• Pranjivan Harihar Pandya (ed.), Manusmriti; With a commentary called Manvarth Muktavali by Kullooka Bhatt, Bombay, 1913.
• J.I. Shastri (ed.), Manusmriti with Kullukabhatta Commentary (1972-1974), reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120807662.
• Ramacandra Varma Shastri, Manusmr̥ti: Bhāratīya ācāra-saṃhitā kā viśvakośa, Śāśvata Sāhitya Prakāśana, 1997.

See also

• Classical Hindu law
• Classical Hindu law in practice
• Flood myth

Notes

References

• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 
• Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. 
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. 
• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1986). A History of India. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-577-5. 
• Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24225-4. 
•  "The Laws of Manu". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. 
• Olivelle, Patrick (2010). "Dharmasastra: A Literary History". In Lubin, Timothy; Krishnan, Jayanth; and Davis, Jr., Donald R. Law and Hinduism: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521716260. 

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