Mads Johansen Lange

Not to be confused with Mads Langer.
Painted by unknown Chinese painter on Bali
Signature

Mads Johansen Lange, nicknamed King of Bali, (September 18, 1807, Rudkøbing, Denmark – May 13, 1856, Kuta, Bali) was a Danish trader, peace maker on Bali, knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion and recipient of the Danish gold medal of achievement. He was the son of Lorents Lange Pedersen[lower-alpha 1] and Mare Lange, a merchant and a merchant's daughter respectively.[1]

Mads Lange travelled to the East Indies at an early age and settled on the island of Bali. Here he built a thriving commercial enterprise, exporting rice, spices and beef, and importing weapons and textiles. He maintained good relations with the local Rajas and mediated between them and the Dutch colonists with great success.

Mads Lange died 48 years old, possibly because of poisoning. His business had been in decline by then, and even the joint efforts of his brother and nephew could not change this. The remains of the business were sold to a Chinese merchant. He had three children with local Balinese women. His maternal grandson, Sultan Ibrahim by his daughter Cecilia, was the Sultan of Johor. Mads Lange is buried in Kotta (now 'Kuta').

Childhood

Mads Lange was born in Rudkøbing on 18 September 1807, as the second son of Lorents Lange and Maren Hansen. He had one sister and ten brothers, three of whom were children from an earlier marriage of his mother. The youngest brother died when he was six years old. No more is known about Mads Lange's childhood.[2]

Ancestors

His father Lorents Lange Pedersen was the son of master builder Peder Frandsen Knudsøn and Johanne Margrethe Lorentzdatter Lange. He was the only one of his nine brothers and sisters to take his mothers surname Lange as baptismal name. Although the idea was for it to be a middle name in practice it became his surname, meaning his mothers surname lived on through him. Lorents was the only boy among the three children who survived into adulthood. In later life Lorents was a member of the Langeland militia. He had an indirect role in the Napoleonic Wars. During 1812-1813 Spanish soldiers were billeted in his house. He received 4 florins a month for this, but it meant his family home was now occupied by about 15 persons. This will have been a contributing factor in buying a new house on the Østergade 12-14 in 1816. In 1822 Lorents started a transport company, with a mail coach and two horses, not uncommon for a merchant in those days. His cousin was master of the ferry services in those days, which probably benefited the small company enormously. Lorents died in 1828.

Mads Lange's mother Maren Hansen had married Mads Andresen in 1799. With him she had three sons. Mads Andresen died in 1805 and later that year Maren married Lorents Lange. She had inherited a tavern and a shop, which Lorents ran, even though he had been trained to be a master builder. After Lorents' death she married Mads Hansen.[1]

Career at sea

Mads Lange started his career at sea at fourteen years of age. Three years later, in 1824, he worked aboard the ship North, where he met captain John Burd. They sailed together for many years, for instance to the Danish trading post Tranquebar in India. In 1833 the returned to Denmark en Mads seized this opportunity to visit his parents' home. He remained in Denmark for some time and was counted in the 1834 census.

In the meantime Burd sold the ship North in Hamburg. A little while later he and Mads bought the ship South, which they steered towards India and China. Burd was the captain, Mads the first mate. With them traveled Mads' three brothers: Hans, Carl Emil and Hans Henrik, 20, 18 and 14 years old respectively. None of the four brothers would ever return to their fatherland.[3]

Settlement in the East

Lombok

In 1835 Mads decided to settle on the island of Lombok, east of Bali and Java, because here there was a lively commercial traffic. The island contained two princely states, Karangasem Lombok and Mataram. The first was the largest, and it was the Raja from this state who allowed Mads Lange to trade from the port city of Tanjungkarang, in exchange for a yearly fee. It was here that Mads Lange created his first flourishing commercial enterprise. He exported coffee, rice, spices and green tobacco. Imported textiles and weapons could easily be sold to the local warring tribes.[4]

In 1839 fights erupted ever more frequently between the princely states. Combined with increased Dutch efforts to colonize the island this forced Mads to leave Lombok. When the Raja who had supported him was defeated, Mads had to flee to Bali head-over-heels in his schooner Venus.[5]

Bali

Gate of the factorij, painting ca. 1845

Mads Lange now had to start over on Bali. He settled on the south coast of the island, near the town of Kotta. The town was situated on a narrow peninsula, which made it possible to load goods both on the east and on the west side. This came in very handy during the monsoon season, when winds abruptly change direction.

Four factors helped Mads Lange settle on Bali successfully. Factor one was his long history of trading with Bali. This meant he knew the possibilities this island had to offer. Second were his good relations with the Balinese Rajas. Raja Kassiman of Badung had even invited him to settle on the island. This meant he enjoyed protection, that he could arrange cheap labour, and probably that he possessed a monopoly on trade on the island. The third factor was that the local population on Bali was suffering from an economic depression, after a war with Java had made the export of slaves impossible. The fourth factor was a shortage of rice in Asia. Bali had the possibilities of reaping the benefits of this shortage, because the island population was well skilled in rice-farming, and because the climate allows for up to three harvests a year.[6][5]

Mads Lange built his factorij at Kotta and steadily expanded it with residential units and warehouses. The Dutch nobleman and politician Wolter Robert, Baron van Hoevell visited Bali and Mads Lange, and gave a description of the factorij:[7]

 A large stone wall was the first thing that caught our eye. Through a large door or gate, which was locked at night, we rode into the estate. Opposite the gate stands a cannon with the mouth in the direction of the gate as a warning in case of enemy attacks. It proved that mister Lange did not blindly entrust his well-being to Raja of the country in which he was residing, and that vigilance and a gun in hand were better to rely on.
 Inside this wall are the buildings that form mister Lange's house (...). Here beauty is sacrificed for usefulness. The central building consists of several good guest rooms which, as I was told, left nothing to be desired.
 In the foreground ones gaze is drawn towards a large Pandopo which is used for receiving Balinese come to talk about trade. There is almost never any place for visitors. You could describe it as a stock exchange which never closes. There are also a special dining room and a billiards room, which are very well equipped, and in which the generous host made sure his guests were wanting nothing.
 Next to the main building are several houses for the staff and very good, spacious warehouses. Even in this there was an intense and uninterrupted bustle. Continuously rice was being brought in by the Balinese, in exchange for cash or other goods they came to acquire. Through the creative force of mister Lange, a sort of colony has steadily grown within those walls, a lively and densly occupied city, which possesses order, dynamism and prosperity.
—Van Hoëvell
Factorij-house, with Mads Lange in the back in the middle. Painting, ca. 1845

Mads Lange was in good standing with the Balinese and within a few years he had built a flourishing company, that owned about 15 ships which entertained a lively trade on ports in the East Indies, the West Indies and Europe. His brothers helped him out in the factorij, and sometimes sailed on the ships, when trading missions were difficult or demanding. Because of pirates and bad weather conditions these journeys were not without danger. Two of Mads' brothers, Hans Henrik and Carl Emil died during these kind of journeys. Carl Emil even died in plain sight of Mads, when the row boat he was in capsized.[8][9]

Mads Lange's career as a merchant blossomed during the 1840s. Halfway through that period his fleet of ships was capable of transporting between 800 and 1500 tons of freight. Many of the ships were newly built, probably in Singapore, a city Mads often visited. Coconut oil was sold in Singapore in great quantities, with profits of 200 to 300%. Because of this Mads had an oil mill imported whole from Europe. This was an expensive operation, but the costs would be recuperated within a few years. Rice kept being announced for low prices in the newspapers of Singapore, Australia and China.[10][11]

Predominantly French ship sailed to Kotta to load trading goods, especially cattle, pony's, pigs and poultry. Often the Balinese would come to the beaches with far more livestock than the ships could carry. Here Mads Lange would take advantage of the situation. He bought the livestock that remained, especially the cattle, since beef was a popular food. He functioned as a beach butcher, were a man could have his cows butchered quickly. Dried beef, known as "ding-ding" was shipped to Dutch troops on Java.[12][13]

During those days Mads' factorij had trading interests of a million guilders on trade with Java specifically. His success was predominantly because of his ability to create personal ties, especially with the local Rajas. The Dutch, who were also trying to set up trade on Bali, were less successful and in May 1844 they named Mads Lange their agent on the island, with the right to fly the Dutch flag. Now Mads was not just working for himself, but also for the Dutch authorities, who profited from his cooperation.

Peace broker

In the last half of the 1840s the Dutch again tried to gain control over Bali and its Rajas. In July 1846 the sent a military force to the island, the First Dutch Expedition to Bali. Their goal was the northern city of Buleleng. After an ultimatum to surrender unconditionally was rejected, the Dutch landed on the island on 28 June and attacked the city. It was conquered and burned. The next day the Dutch troops marched for the residency Singaraja. This city was taken without much resistance, because most Balinese were moving inland, to the fort of Djagaraga. During the attack the Dutch received support from their fleet, and the commander of this fleet would not allow the troops to move too far inland. Mads Lange offered to go to the Rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem for negotiations. These were successful and on 9 July the peace accords came into effect. The Rajas would pay a small amount of damages and the Dutch would maintain a small occupation force on the island until the matter would be settled.[10]

When the Rajas did not comply with all the agreements of the treaty of 1846, the Dutch sent a larger expedition to Bali in 1848, the Second Dutch Expedition to Bali. Mads Lange was able to keep the states of Tabanan and Badung neutral, but the rest of the Balinese forces assembled at Djagaraga, the same place they had sought refuge in 1846. During the preparations for their campaign the Dutch blockaded the coast of Bali, wreaking havoc on trade. Djagaraga lay deep inland, so the attack had to go through without the help of the fleet. At first all went well, but the Dutch were stopped when they met Gusti Djilantiek, who had dug in with 600 riflemen. When it became clear that the Dutch supply was badly organized, because there were not enough coolies to carry everything, the Dutch could no longer resists Balinese attacks from the villages and they were forced to retreat.[14]

The Dutch defeat resonated through the Dutch East Indies and the government felt compelled to re-establish authority, in order to prevent revolts in other parts of the archipelago. A new force twice the size of the previous one was sent in 1849, the Third Dutch Expedition to Bali. This time the army brought along 200 coolies to carry supplies and wounded. On April 1, 1849 the fleet reached Buleleng and on April 4 general-major Andreas Victor Michiels set up his headquarters in the abandoned palace of Singaraja. Emissaries of the Rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem were sent to the general, but he refused to talk to anyone but the Rajas themselves. He urged them to hurry up, or they would lose their territories. The meeting took place on April 7. The Balinese arrived at the palace with a force of 12.000 men, after the Dutch had allowed them to take as much guards as the Rajas deemed necessary. Fighting did not occur, since the Rajas accepted all demand of the Dutch, including the immediate demolition of the fortifications at Djagaraga.[15]

Raja of Buleleng commits Puputan together with his subjects, from Le Petit Journal.

The Dutch now decided to focus their attention on the south of Bali and they attacked the small states of Karangasem and Klungkung. At the same time they accepted an offer of 400 soldiers from the Prince of Lombok, who also coveted power over Karangasem. On 12 May 1849 preparations were complete and the Dutch landed near the coastal town of Padang Cove, which they conquered. A week later warriors from Lombok infiltrated in Karangasem, which rose in revolt against its Raja. The Raja, facing total defeat, killed all his wives and children and then committed suicide. The Raja of Buleleng, together with Gusti Djilantiek, fled into the mountains, with the warriors from Lombok in pursuit. The Dutch now focussed their attacks on Klungkung, where the most important and holiest Raja of Bali resided, the Dewa Agung. This Raja and his sister were the most fanatical opponents of Dutch influence on Bali, and it was of utmost importance to sideline them. Under command of major-general Michiels the Dutch progressed and conquered and old, holy temple and the town of Kasumba. The next night however they were attacked by the Balinese, and Michiels was wounded in the thigh. He died after an unsuccessful amputation. The second in command, lieutenant-colonel Jan van Swieten took over command and decided to retreat the army back to the coast. There he waited for further instructions from Batavia. They were met by the warriors from Lombok who informed them that the Raja and Gusti Djilantiek were no longer alive.[16]

Balinese attack the Dutch at Kasumba

Mads Lange's trade suffered from the war and when the Raja of Kassim launched an attack on neighbouring Menguwi, the people in Kotta feared a counter-attack. Mads convinced the Rajas to assemble a force of 16.000 men and join him on a journey to the Dewa Agung, plead with him for peace negotiations with the Dutch. Even though fortune favoured the Balinese after the death of Michiels and the retreat of the Dutch army, the Rajas decided to accept Mads Lange's request. Lange had placed a man aboard his ship the Venus and sent him ahead to inform the Dutch of his mediation. They were not convinced he would succeed, and when the monsoon season arrived, they decided that action needed to be taken, lest the whole expedition would fail. The army advanced on Kasumba and met almost no resistance. The Balinese had raised their defences around Klungkung. Early in the morning of June 10 the Dutch left Kasumba for Klungkung. Along the way they met Mads Lange and a small group of riders. He informed them that his mediation had failed, but that the Rajas wished for peace. Mads also warned the Dutch not to advance any further, for he could not guarantee that his 16.000 men would not join the Balinese defences. The Dutch were grateful for the information and retreated. They sent Mads Lange back to the Rajas, together with a Dutch officer, to agree with the Rajas that the Balinese would send an embassy to the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies to recognize Dutch sovereignty over the island.[17]

A few days after the new commander of the military forces in the Dutch East Indies, Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, had arrived, Mads Lange organised a meeting for all Dutch soldiers and 12.000 Balinese. The latter were extremely curious about this 'real' European prince. The Rajas and the prince assured each other of their peaceful intentions, after which prince left for Batavia, taking most of the Dutch troops with him. Jan van Swieten was tasked with forging a final peace agreement with the Balinese princes. When the residences of the Rajas proved to be to small for the meetings, talks were held in the factorij of Mads Lange, which by that time was already a meeting place where quarrels between Balinese and foreigners were resolved. The meeting took place from 10 to 15 July. De Dewa Agung was ill and had sent his son Raja Geit Putera from Klungkung. The Rajas of Bandung, Tabanan, Gianyar and Mengwi were also present. Both parties saw the final arrangement as a victory. The Dutch left the island as sovereigns, while the Balinese would remain de facto independent for the rest of the 19th century.[18]

According to estimates there were around 20.000 people attending the meetings, mostly Balinese. During the many days of negotiations, they all stayed in or around Mads Lange's factorij. This must have been a huge drain on his resources. Raja Kassiman rewarded him for his efforts by granting him the honorary title of unggawa besar or high commissioner, one of the most senior titles on Bali. The Dutch on their part rewarded Mads Lange with the Knight's Cross in the Order of the Netherlands Lion, awarded on 11 December 1849 by king William III. The newspaper of Langeland, the Danish island where Mads Lange had been born, wrote in 1850 about the award: "His many great services and self-sacrificing toils in support of the Dutch, have finally been acknowledged by the Dutch government, both in the East Indies as well as in Europe, proven by the fact that last year he was named Knight in the Order of the Dutch Lion." [18][19]

Economic decline

After the war Bali suffered an economic decline, which also affected Mads Lange and his factorij. The Dutch blockades during the military campaigns had practically stopped all trade. Also the majority of the male inhabitants had fought in the war instead of working the fields, leading to a standstill in the production of major export products. Mads Lange was able to buy rice in Lombok and sell it to Raja Kassiman, but his expensive oil mill ground to a halt due to a shortage of coconuts.

At the same time as this drop in production, the number of ships in the waters around Bali dropped sharply. As skippers were not able to match their previous profits, their numbers declined. Sailing ship were out competed by steamers, resulting in more traffic for large ports like Hong Kong and Singapore, and less for smaller places. Mads Lange also suffered from illness, and a never-sent letter to the Raja of Tabanan shows he had plans to return to Rudkøbing.[20][21]

Relationship with Denmark

Mads Lange never forgot his fatherland, even though most of his life he lived on Bali. He sent several artifacts to the Royal Ethnographic Museum in Copenhagen, which was opened in 1849 by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. After Mads Lange's death, his sea chest was offered to the museum by a Swedish engineer, who had acquired it on Bali. On 28 July 1854 the many gifts Lange had donated to the museum resulted in him being awarded the Danish Golden Medal of Merit by Frederik VII of Denmark. Papers in the Danish National Archives show the bureaucratic process surrounding this award. "Mads Lange was awarded the golden medal by Royal Order of 28 July 1854 resulting from a proposal by the Ministry for Culture. The initiative for this recognition of merit was taken by Christian Jürgensen Thomasen, who on 7th march sent a letter to the director of the Royal Gallery, nominating Mads Lange for donating valuable artifacts to the Ethnographic Museum. On the 11th may the director sent the proposal on to the Ministry for Culture, which lent its approval on 24 July, after which it was signed by Frederik VII on 28 July."[22]

Mads Lange's contribution did not confine itself to the cultural sphere. He sent thousands of rijksdaalders to Denmark during the First Danish-German War of 1848–1851. He also collected money for the Danish organisation "Aid for the Victims of War".

Mads Lange's death

Mads Lange died on 13 May 1856, 48 years of age. His daughter Cecilia was only eight years old, but like Lange's English physician she also suspected he had been poisoned during a visit to a Raja. There were rumors he had been poisoned by the Dutch as well. Since no official inquiry has ever been made, it impossible both to prove or to disprove any theories.[23]

In talks with writer Aage Krarup Nielsen, Cecilia accused Mads' nephew Peter Christian Lange of stealing everything of value and fleeing. Nielsen: "He was a robber who left for home in Denmark with all that was left of my fathers riches, without leaving us two childeren a single penny."[24] Writer Ludvig Verner Helms defend this nephew, based on a letter he had received in 1883 from one of Hans Nielsen Lange's sons, who wrote about Peter Christian Lange: "He sold everything that had belonged to my father, ships and buildings, nothing was left for me. The house in Banjuwangi was left to Cecilia, but because she had no documentary evidence that she was Mads Lange's daughter, the government would not allow this."[lower-alpha 2][25]

Testament

Mads Lange had drawn up a will in 1851. Krarup Nielsen received a copy of this will from his daughter Cecilia, during one of her visits. It is highly likely that this copy still rests at the Royal Library in Copenhagen.

The reason why Mads Lange had made a will at such a young age was the declining economic situation of his company. His planned trip to Denmark was also part of the decision. His brother had recently died in an accident, and making a will before undertaking a long and dangerous journey will have seemed like a good idea. A short while before writing the will Mads had lost his lover, the Balinese woman Nyai Kenyèr, probably because of an outbreak of cholera.

In the will each of his children received a legacy of 10.000 guilders. Besides this, Cecilia would inherit all belongings and properties on Java, on the condition that her mother would be allowed to use these properties for the rest of her life. Cecilia's mother would inherit 3000 pieces of gold, the interest of which would make her financially secure. Ida Bay, Mads Lange's cousin, would inherit 4000 gold pieces and 1000 Spanish daalders, but she had to support Mads Lange's mother, who would inherit all remaining assets. Lastly, two nephews, one in Rudkøbing and one on Bali, would each inherit 1000 guilders. Around 1855 Mads changed his will. His son William had died and was removed from the will. The legacy of his other son Andreas Emil was reduced to 5000 guilders. He would now inherit all his fathers personal belongings and succeed him as head of the company. Cecilia's legacy was reduced by 25% and was frozen at a 9% interest rate. The funds would not be released until she married or reached adulthood.[26][27]

Grave

On one side of the obelisk a stone carries this inscription:[28]

SACRED
TO THE MEMORY
OF
MADS JOHANSEN LANGE
KNIGHT OF THE NEDERL: LEEUW
AND DANISH GOLD MEDAL
BORN IN THE ISLAND OF LANGELAND
DENMARK
18 SEPT. 1807
DEPARTED THIS LIFE AT BALI
13th MAY 1856
AFTER A RESIDENCE OF 18 YEARS
ON THIS ISLAND

Mads Lange was buried near his factorij in a small grove of palm trees. Today the grave lies on the main road between Sanur and Kotta. An obelisk has been placed. It was erected in 1927 by the Dutch government on the originally white foundations, at the urging of the Danish consul at Surabaya, Johan Ernst Quintus Bosz.

The end of the factorij

Mads Lange's brother Hans and his nephew Peter Christian tried to keep the factorij going after his death. The nephew even invested large amount of personal wealth. After Hans' death in 1860, Peter Christian was the only remaining Christian member of the family on Bali. After Raja Kassiman died in 1863 the factorij lost its protector. Shortly after Peter found himself in conflict with the Rajas. He subsequently sold his factorij to a Chinese merchant. He died in 1869 in Denmark, aged 42.

Several times Cecilia and her half-brother tried in vain to get clear information about the value of their fathers belongings on Bali. An investigation by the Dutch authorities in 1872 resulted in several lengthy exchanges of letters between the Raja and the Dutch. In the meantime the once flourishing company withered away. The empty factorij was abandoned and today no visible traces remain of its existence.

Descendants

Cecilia Catharina, Mads Lange's daughter

Mads Lange never married. His whole life he hoped to marry his cousin Ida Bay, who was ten years younger than him. He sent her letters and gifts, but the feeling was clearly not mutual and she did not even comment on the letter with the marriage proposal from the east.

On Bali Mads Lange fathered three children with two women. One was a Balinese woman named Njai Kenjèr or Nyai Kenyèr.[lower-alpha 3] His second wife was a Chinese woman who Mads calls Nonna Sangnio, which means "Miss" or "Mistress".

He had three children in total. With Nyai Kenyèr he had William Peter (1843) and Andreas Emil (1850), and with Nonna Sangnio he had Cecilia Catharina (1848).

Both his sons went to school in Singapore. William Peter died here at twelve years of age. Andreas Emil was educated at the Raffles Institute. He married a Malaysian woman and had several children. His descendants live in Singapore and Australia. Former New-Zealand prime-minister David Lange, who is known to be of Danish ancestry, is descended from a different branch of the family according to himself.[29]

Daughter Cecilia was sent to Singapore when she was seven years old, to receive an education at a convent school. The next years Mads Lange died, and she was adopted by an English family. They took her on holidays to Europe and India. She received a thorough education, which proved to be of great use when she returned to Singapore in 1870. Here she met Abu Bakar, the ruler of Johor. He fell in love with her and was so smitten he ignored all the custom stereotypes that in those days stood in the way of a marriage between a full-blooded Malay man and a Eurasian woman. They married and Cecilia took the name Zubaidah. She was not Abu Bakar's first wife however. And when her husband, with British blessing, became sultan in 1885, it was his third wife Fatima who received the title of sultana. Cecilia was named "Inch Besar Zubaidah", a title bestowed upon wives of the sultan who were not sultana. But in contrast to his other wives, it was Cecilia who bore him a son and continued the dynasty. Her son Ibrahim is a descendant of Mads Lange, and his family sits on the throne of Johor to this very day.[30]

Notes, References & Sources

Notes

  1. ↑ Some sources name him as Lorentz, with a 'z' instead of an 's'.
  2. ↑ It was believed that Cecilia would inherit the house on Java, but the government denied this.
  3. ↑ The spelling is uncertain. Her name appears in one letter only, which she wrote to Mads Lange from Tabanan.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Rasmussen 2007, pp. 20.
  2. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, pp. 36.
  3. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, pp. 60.
  4. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, p. 61.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Rasmussen 2007, p. 62.
  6. ↑ Nielsen 1949, p. 41.
  7. ↑ Nielsen 1949, p. 56.
  8. ↑ Nielsen 1949, p. 48.
  9. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, p. 37.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Nielsen 1949, pp. 69.
  11. ↑ Nielsen 1949, p. 128.
  12. ↑ Andresen 1992, p. 26.
  13. ↑ Nielsen 1949, p. 85.
  14. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 101.
  15. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 109.
  16. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 113.
  17. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 115.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Andresen 1992, pp. 32.
  19. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 117.
  20. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, p. 64.
  21. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 127.
  22. ↑ Andresen 1992, pp. 33.
  23. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, p. 65.
  24. ↑ Andresen 1992, p. 54.
  25. ↑ Andresen 1992, p. 55.
  26. ↑ Andresen 1992, pp. 61.
  27. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 140.
  28. ↑ Rasmussen 2007, pp. 67.
  29. ↑ Andresen 1992, p. 43.
  30. ↑ Nielsen 1949, pp. 134.

Sources

External links

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