Jesus

This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. For other uses, see Jesus (disambiguation).

Jesus

A stained glass depiction of Jesus as a Caucasian man with long brown hair, a beard and the characteristic Christian cross inscribed in the halo behind his head. The figure dressed in a white inner robe cover by a shorter, looser scarlet robe. Depicted as a Shepherd, he is holding a crux in his left hand and carrying a lamb in his right. Sheep are positioned to the left and right of the figure.

Jesus depicted as the Good Shepherd
(stained glass at St John's Ashfield in
Sydney, Australia)
Born 7–2 BC[lower-alpha 1]
Herodian Tetrarchy, Roman Empire[5]
Died 30–33 AD[lower-alpha 2]
Judea, Roman Empire
Cause of death
 Crucifixion[lower-alpha 3]
Home town Nazareth, Galilee[11]
Parent(s)

Jesus (/ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς Iesous; 7–2 BC to 30–33 AD), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity,[12] whom the teachings of most Christian denominations hold to be the Son of God. Christianity regards Jesus as the awaited Messiah (or "Christ") of the Old Testament and refers to him as Jesus Christ,[lower-alpha 5] a name that is also used in non-Christian contexts.

Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically,[lower-alpha 6] although the quest for the historical Jesus has produced little agreement on the historical reliability of the Gospels and on how closely the biblical Jesus reflects the historical Jesus.[19] Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Jewish rabbi[20] from Galilee who preached his message orally,[21] was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate.[22] Scholars have constructed various portraits of the historical Jesus, which often depict him as having one or more of the following roles: the leader of an apocalyptic movement, Messiah, a charismatic healer, a sage and philosopher, or an egalitarian social reformer.[23] Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life. The widely accepted calendar era (abbreviated as "AD", alternatively referred to as "CE"), counts from a medieval estimate of the birth year of Jesus.

Christians believe that Jesus has a "unique significance" in the world.[24] Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, whence he will return.[25] The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity. A few Christian groups reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.

In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets and the Messiah.[26] To Muslims, Jesus is a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin, but neither the Son of God nor the victim of crucifixion. According to the Quran, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into the heavens by God.[27] Judaism rejects the Christian and Islamic belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.

Etymology of names

Further information: Jesus (name), Holy Name of Jesus, Name of God in Christianity and Yeshua (name)

A typical Jew in Jesus' time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the father's name or the individual's hometown.[28] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth"[lower-alpha 7] (Matthew 26:71), "Joseph's son" (Luke 4:22), and "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth" (John 1:45). However, in Mark 6:3, rather than being called the son of Joseph, he is referred to as "the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon".

The name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iesous).[29] The Greek form is a rendition of the Hebrew ישוע‎ (Yeshua), a variant of the earlier name יהושע‎ (Yehoshua), or Joshua.[30][31][32] The name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[33] The first-century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the same language as that of the New Testament,[34] refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus (i.e. Ἰησοῦς).[35] The etymology of Jesus' name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as "Yahweh is salvation".[36]

Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".[37] The word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Christos),[29][38] which is a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Meshiakh), meaning the "anointed" and usually transliterated into English as "Messiah".[39][40] Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In postbiblical usage, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ"—but originally it was a title.[41][42] The term "Christian" (meaning "one who owes allegiance to the person Christ" or simply "follower of Christ") has been in use since the first century.[43][44]

Portraits of Jesus in the Gospels

Events in the
Life of Jesus
according to the Gospels
Portals: Christianity Bible

The four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are the main sources for the biography of Jesus.[45][46] Other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles, which were probably written decades before the gospels, also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[47][48][49] Acts of the Apostles (10:37–38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[50][51] Acts 1:1–11 says more about the Ascension of Jesus (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels do.[52]

Some early Christian and Gnostic groups had separate descriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus that are not included in the New Testament. These include the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, and the Apocryphon of James, among many other apocryphal writings. Most scholars consider these much later and less reliable accounts than the canonical gospels.[53][54]

Canonical gospel accounts

See also: Gospel harmony, Historical reliability of the Gospels and Internal consistency of the New Testament
A four-page papyrus manuscript, which is torn in many places
A 3rd-century Greek papyrus of the Gospel of Luke

The canonical gospels are four accounts, each written by a different author. The first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (written 60–75 AD), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (65–85 AD), the Gospel of Luke (65–95 AD), and the Gospel of John (75–100 AD).[55] They often differ in content and in the ordering of events.[56]

Traditionally, Christians believe that the four gospels were written by four evangelists who were close to Jesus:[57] Mark was written by John Mark, an associate of Peter;[58] Matthew was written by one of Jesus' disciples;[57] Luke was written by a companion of Paul, someone mentioned in a few epistles;[57] and John was written by another of Jesus' disciples,[57] in fact part of an inner group of disciples, along with Peter and Jesus' brother James.[59]

Three of them, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view").[60][61][62] They are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.[60][61] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.[63] While the flow of some events (such as Jesus' baptism, transfiguration, crucifixion and interactions with the apostles) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfiguration do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the Cleansing of the Temple.[64]

Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels Jesus in the Gospel of John
Begins with Jesus' baptism or birth to a virgin.[57] Begins with creation, with no birth story.[57]
Baptized by John the Baptist.[57] Baptism presupposed but not mentioned.[57]
Teaches in parables and aphorisms.[57] Teaches in long, involved discourses.[57]
Teaches primarily about the Kingdom of God, little about himself.[57] Teaches primarily and extensively about himself.[57]
Speaks up for the poor and oppressed.[57] Says little to nothing about the poor or oppressed.[57]
Public ministry lasts one year.[57] Public ministry lasts three years.[57]
Cleansing the Temple occurs late.[57] Cleansing the Temple is early.[57]
Jesus ushers in a new covenant with a last supper.[57] Jesus washes the disciples' feet.[57]

Most scholars agree, following what is known as the "Marcan hypothesis",[65] that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source when writing their gospels. Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark. To explain this, many scholars believe that in addition to Mark, another source (commonly called the "Q source") was used by the two authors.[66]

According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.[67] However, not everything contained in the New Testament gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[68] Elements whose historical authenticity is disputed include the Nativity, the Resurrection, the Ascension, some of Jesus' miracles, and the Sanhedrin trial, among others.[69][70][71] Views on the gospels range from their being inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus[72] to their providing little historical information about his life beyond the basics.[73][74]

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the Son of God whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of God's Kingdom.[58] He is a tireless wonder worker, the servant of both God and man.[75] This short gospel records few of Jesus' words or teachings.[58] The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfillment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament, and he is the Lord of the Church.[76] He is the kingly Messiah, referred to repeatedly as "king" and "Son of David."[75] A noteworthy feature of this gospel are the five discourses, collections of teachings on particular themes, including the Sermon on the Mount.[76] Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human savior who shows compassion to the needy.[77] He is the friend of sinners and outcasts, come to seek and save the lost.[75] This gospel includes Jesus' most beloved parables, such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son.[77]

The Synoptics and John agree on the main outline of Jesus' life.[78] John the Baptist precedes Jesus, their ministries overlap, and John witnesses to Jesus' identity.[78] Jesus teaches and performs miracles, at least partly in Galilee.[78] He then visits Jerusalem, where the leaders have him crucified, and he is buried.[78] After his tomb is found empty on Sunday, the risen Jesus presents himself to his followers.[78]

In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly. Here his is the Bread of Life, the Light of the World, the True Vine and more.[75]

In general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[79] As stated in John 21:25, the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[80] The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity, with timelines as a secondary consideration.[81] One manifestation of the gospels as theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, referred to as the Passion.[82] Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.[68][79][81]

Genealogy and nativity

A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in light
"Adoration of the Shepherds" by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622

Matthew and Luke each offer a genealogy of Jesus. Matthew traces Jesus' ancestry to Abraham through David. Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[83]

Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus' nativity (or birth), especially that Jesus was born of a virgin in Bethlehem in fulfillment of prophecy. Luke's account emphasizes events before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.[84][85][86] Both accounts state that Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem, and both support the doctrine of the virgin birth, according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.[87][88][89]

In Luke 1:31–38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.[85][87] Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled (Matthew 1:19–20) because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[90] When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by Caesar Augustus. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a manger (Luke 2:1–7). An angel announces the birth to some shepherds, who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad (Luke 2:8–20). After the presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Joseph, Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth.[85][87] In Matthew 1:1–12, wise men or Magi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews. Herod hears of Jesus' birth and, wanting him killed, orders the murders of male infants in Bethlehem. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family flees to Egypt—later to return and settle in Nazareth.[90][91][92]

Early life, family, and profession

Main article: Child Jesus
12-year-old Jesus found in the temple depicted by James Tissot

Jesus' childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee where he lived with his family. Christian tradition places Joseph as Jesus' foster father. Historians such as Geza Vermes, E. P. Sanders, and Reza Aslan state Joseph as Jesus' father.[93][94][95] Geza Vermes notes that the differing views are due to theological interpretations versus historical views.[93] Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.[96] His other family members—his mother, Mary, his brothers James, Joses (or Joseph), Judas and Simon and his unnamed sisters[97]—are mentioned in the gospels and other sources. Some early Christian writers, concerned that mention of Jesus' brothers and sisters contradicted the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary, argued that these represented either older children of Joseph by a previous marriage, or that the reference was actually to "cousins". Both interpretations are discounted by modern scholars.[98][99]

Jesus is called a τέκτων (tekton) Mark 6:3, traditionally understood as carpenter but could cover makers of objects in various materials, including builders.[100][101] The gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not imply that he received formal scribal training.[102]

Baptism and temptation

Trevisani's depiction of the baptism of Jesus, with the Holy Spirit descending from Heaven as a dove

The Gospel accounts of the baptism of Jesus are all preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.[103][104][105] They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor (Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea at about the time when Jesus began his ministry. John had been foretelling (Luke 3:16) the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he,[106][107] In Matthew 3:14, on meeting Jesus, the Baptist says "I need to be baptized by you", but Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[108] After he does so and Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states, "This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased" (Matthew 3:17). The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove.[106][107][108] This is one of two events described in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the Transfiguration.[109][110]

After the baptism, the Synoptic Gospels describe the temptation of Christ, in which Jesus resisted temptations from the devil while fasting for forty days and nights in the Judaean Desert.[111][112] Jesus' baptism and temptation serve as preparation for his public ministry.[113] The Gospel of John does not mention either event, but does include a testimony by the Baptist whereby he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus (John 1:32).[107][114]

Public ministry

Main article: Ministry of Jesus
Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowd
A 19th-century painting depicting the Sermon on the Mount, by Carl Bloch

The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor of that of Jesus. Starting with his baptism, Jesus begins his ministry in the countryside of Judea, near the River Jordan, when he is "about thirty years old" (Luke 3:23). He then travels, preaches and performs miracles, eventually completing his ministry with the Last Supper with his disciples in Jerusalem.[105]

Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus appoints twelve apostles. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, Jesus' first four apostles, who were fishermen, are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets and boats to do so (Matthew 4:18–22, Mark 1:16–20). In John, Jesus' first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God; the two hear this and follow Jesus.[115][116] In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain identifies a much larger group of people as disciples (Luke 6:17). Also, in Luke 10:1–16 Jesus sends seventy or seventy-two of his followers in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit. They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick and spread the word that the Kingdom of God is coming.[117]

Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in Matthew 4:18–20, his first disciples, who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.[105][118] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of Jesus' major discourses,[118][119] as well as the calming of the storm, the feeding of the 5,000, walking on water and a number of other miracles and parables.[120] It ends with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[121][122]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Perean ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan (John 10:40–42).[123][124] The final ministry in Jerusalem begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into the city on Palm Sunday.[125] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple and Judas bargains to betray him. This period culminates in the Last Supper and the Farewell Discourse.[103][125][126]

Teachings, preachings, and miracles

"Christ and the Rich Young Ruler" by Heinrich Hofmann, 1889

The Kingdom of God (also called the Kingdom of Heaven in Matthew) is one of the key elements of Jesus' teachings in the New Testament.[127] Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message. He calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.[28] Jesus tells his followers to adhere strictly to Jewish law, although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding the Sabbath.[28] When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Matthew 22:37–39). Other ethical teachings of Jesus include loving one's enemies, refraining from hatred and lust, and turning the other cheek (Matthew 5:21–44).[128]

John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine revelation. John the Baptist, for example, states in John 3:34: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In John 7:16 Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing in John 14:10: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."[129][130]

Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing him.
Jesus cleansing a leper – medieval mosaic from the Monreale Cathedral

In the gospels, the approximately thirty parables form about one third of Jesus' recorded teachings.[129][131] The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.[132] They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to the spiritual.[133][134] Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.[135] Some of his parables, such as the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), are relatively simple, while others, such as the Growing Seed (Mark 4:26–29), are more abstruse.[136]

In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry performing miracles, especially healings.[137] The four accounts together record about 35 or 36 miracles.[138] The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.[139] The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments, exorcisms, and resurrections of the dead.[140] The nature miracles show Jesus' power over nature, and include turning water into wine, walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When Jesus' opponents accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of Beelzebul, the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" (Matthew 12:28) or "finger of God" (Luke 11:20).[28][141]

In John, Jesus' miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.[142][143] However, in the Synoptics, when asked to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses.[142] Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.[144] One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.[145] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.[146][147] Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus' daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.[148][149]

Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration

The Transfiguration of Jesus, depicted by Carl Bloch

At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[122][150] These events mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[109][110][122]

In his Confession, Peter tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."[151][152][153] Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.[154][155]

In the Transfiguration (Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8, and Luke 9:28–36),[109][110][122] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white."[156] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him" (Matthew 17:1–9).[109] In 2 Peter 1:16-18, Peter himself affirms that he witnessed Jesus' Transfiguration, stating that the apostolic tradition is based on eyewitness testimony.[157]

Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called Passion Week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,[82] starting with a description of the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion.[103][125] The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.[125] Just before the entry into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John documents the Raising of Lazarus, which increases the tension between Jesus and the authorities.[125]

Activities in Jerusalem

Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls.
A painting of Jesus' final entry into Jerusalem, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1897

After leaving Bethany, Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, an event prophesied in the Book of Zechariah. People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known as palm fronds) in front of him and sing part of Psalm 118:25–26.[158][159][160] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.[125]

In the Synoptics, Jesus next expels the money changers from the temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. John 2:13–16 includes a similar narrative much earlier.

Also in the Synoptics, Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they question his authority, and he criticizes them and calls them hypocrites.[158][160] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elder, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for 30 silver coins.[161][162]

Last Supper

Main article: Last Supper
A depiction of the Last Supper. Jesus sits in the center, his apostles gathered around on either side of him.
The Last Supper, depicted in this 16th-century painting by Juan de Juanes

The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his 12 apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26) also refers to it.[48][49][163] During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.[164] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.[48][49][164]

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood" (Luke 22:19–20).[48][165] The Christian sacrament or ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events.[166] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[167]

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning.[168][169] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper (Luke 22:34, John 22:34). In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him (Matthew 26:31–34, Mark 14:27–30).[170] The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.[91] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content.[171][172]

Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest

Judas kisses Jesus, and soldiers rush to seize the latter.
A 17th-century depiction of the kiss of Judas and arrest of Jesus, by Caravaggio

After the Last Supper, Jesus, accompanied by his disciples, takes a walk to pray. Matthew and Mark identify the place as the garden of Gethsemane, while Luke identifies it as the Mount of Olives.[170][173] Judas appears in the garden, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders, and people with weapons. He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which then arrests Jesus.[170][174] In an attempt to stop them, one of Jesus' disciples uses a sword to cut off the ear of a man in the crowd.[170][174] Luke states that Jesus miraculously heals the wound, and John and Matthew report that Jesus criticizes the violent act, enjoining his disciples not to resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus says, "All who take the sword will perish by the sword".[170][174] After Jesus' arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice denies knowing Jesus.[170] After the third denial, he hears the rooster crow and recalls the prediction as Jesus turns to look at him. Peter then weeps bitterly.[168]

Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate

Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, Jesus at Herod's Court and Crown of Thorns
See also: Jesus, King of the Jews, What is truth? and Ecce homo

After his arrest, Jesus is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.[175] The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials.[176] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[174][177][178] John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas, Caiaphas' father-in-law, and then to the high priest.[174][177][178]

A depiction of Jesus' public trial
Ecce homo! Antonio Ciseri's 1871 depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting Jesus to the public

During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 Jesus' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?"[174][177][178] In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.[28] This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is more ambiguous:[28][179] in Matthew 26:64 he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am".[180][181]

Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask the Roman governor Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus, accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[178] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.[182][183] In Luke 23:7–15 Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[184][185] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[186] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,[184] who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".[186]

Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas. Persuaded by the elders (Matthew 27:20), the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[187] Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus' cross (John 19:19–20),[188] then scourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a Crown of Thorns on Jesus' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary,[189] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.[174][178][190]

Crucifixion and entombment

See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and Crucifixion eclipse
A depiction of Jesus on the cross
Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482

Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.[191][192] In Luke 23:27–28 Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.[191] At Calvary, Jesus is offered a concoction usually offered as a painkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.[191][192]

The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews"; soldiers and passersby mock him about it. Jesus is crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebukes Jesus, while the other defends him.[191][193] The Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs (a procedure designed to hasten death in a crucifixion), but they do not break those of Jesus, as he is already dead. In John 19:34, one soldier pierces Jesus' side with a lance, and blood and water flow out.[194] In Matthew 27:51–54, when Jesus dies, the heavy curtain at the Temple is torn and an earthquake breaks open tombs. Terrified by the events, a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Son of God.[191][195]

On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and with Nicodemus' help, removes Jesus' body from the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in a new rock-hewn tomb.[191] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance and post a guard.[191][196]

Resurrection and ascension

Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection from the dead, depicted by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov

New Testament accounts of Jesus' resurrection state that on the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his tomb is discovered to be empty and his followers encounter him risen from the dead. His followers arrive at the tomb early in the morning and meet either one or two beings (men or angels) dressed in bright robes. Mark 16:9 and John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene first, and Luke 24:1 states that she is one of the myrrhbearers.[52][197]

After the discovery of the empty tomb, Jesus makes a series of appearances to the disciples.[52] These include the Doubting Thomas episode and the appearance on the road to Emmaus, where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish is a miracle by the Sea of Galilee, after which Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[52][197]

Before he ascends into heaven, Jesus commissions his disciples to spread his teachings to all the nations of the world. Luke 24:51 states that Jesus is then "carried up into heaven". The Ascension account is elaborated in Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".[52]

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus in visions after his Ascension. Acts 7:55 describes a vision experienced by Stephen just before his death.[198] On the road to Damascus, the Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting" (Acts 9:5).[199] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs Ananias of Damascus to heal Paul. It is the last conversation with Jesus reported in the Bible until the Book of Revelation,[199] in which a man named John receives a revelation from Jesus concerning the last days.[200]

Historical views

A map. See description
Judea, Galilee and neighboring areas at the time of Jesus

Prior to the Enlightenment, the gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the gospels and the Jesus of history.[201] Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.[202][203] Scholars have studied and debated a number of issues concerning the historical Jesus, such as his existence, the origins and historical reliability of the gospels and other sources, and the precise portrait of the historical figure.

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.[204] In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as Price are a very small minority.[205][206] Although a belief in the inerrancy of the gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".[205][207][208] Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.[209][210]

Sources

See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Jesus
A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-century Roman-Jewish historian who referred to Jesus[211]

The non-canonical Gospel of Thomas is an independent witness to many of the Jesus' parables and aphorisms.[212] Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have historical value.[213]

Non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of first-century historians Josephus and Tacitus.[214][211][215] Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in book 20 of the Antiquities of the Jews, and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.[216][217] Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate in book 15 of his work Annals. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.[218]

Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways.[11] First, they show that even neutral or hostile parties never evince any doubt that Jesus actually existed.[11] Second, they present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.[11]

Archeology helps scholars better understand Jesus' social world.[219] Recent archeological work, for example, indicates that Capernaum, a city important in Jesus' ministry, was poor and small, without even a forum or an agora.[220] [221] This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.[220]

Chronology

Main article: Chronology of Jesus
See also: Anno Domini

Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jew, born around the beginning of the first century, who died between 30 and 36 AD in Judea.[222][223] The designation for the first century, anno domini, or "in the year of the lord", is in reference to the birth of Jesus,[224] despite modern consensus that he was born before this time. The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of John the Baptist and was crucified by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, who held office from 26 to 36 AD.[22]

Historicity of events

Main article: Historicity of Jesus
See also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus, History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Higher criticism, Textual criticism and Historical reliability of the Gospels
A white statue of a man
An apparently old document
Roman senator and historian Tacitus wrote of the crucifixion of Christ (Jesus) in the Annals, a history of the Roman Empire during the first century.

Most modern scholars consider Jesus' baptism and crucifixion to be definite historical facts.[7] James D.G. Dunn states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[7] Scholars adduce the criterion of embarrassment, saying that early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader,[225] or a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed sins and wanted to repent.[226][227] Scholars use a number of criteria, such as the criterion of multiple attestation, the criterion of coherence, and the criterion of discontinuity to judge the historicity of events.[228] The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source. Mark, the earliest written gospel, is usually considered the most historically reliable.[229] John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally considered less reliable. For example, many scholars do not consider the Raising of Lazarus to be historical, partly because it appears only in John.[230] Amy-Jill Levine states that there is "a consensus of sorts" on the basic outline of Jesus' life, in that most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in parables, gathered followers, and was crucified on Pilate's orders.[22]

Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in Galilee and Judea and did not preach or study elsewhere.[231] The renowned Italian polymath Gaetano De Sanctis[232] (1870 – 1957) said that the empty tomb of Jesus was proven by the Nazareth Inscription,[233] which is a marble tablet inscribed in Greek with an edict from an unnamed Caesar ordering capital punishment for anyone caught disturbing graves or tombs.[234]

Portraits of Jesus

Main article: Historical Jesus

Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.[235] Ben Witherington states that "there are now as many portraits of the historical Jesus as there are scholarly painters".[236] Witherington argues that any valid portrait must recognize Jesus' self-identity as a Jew, and he promotes a portrait of Jesus as a prophetic sage in the Jewish wisdom tradition.[237][238] Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.[73][74] The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospels.[239][240]

The mainstream profiles in the third quest may be grouped according to whether they portray Jesus primarily as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer, a cynic philosopher, the true Messiah, or an egalitarian prophet of social change.[241][23] However, the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.[242]

Contemporary scholarship, representing the "third quest," places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition.[243] Leading scholars in the "third quest" include E. P. Sanders, Geza Vermes, Gerd Theissen, Christoph Burchard, and John Dominic Crossan.[243] Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of E. P. Sanders, a '"renewal movement within Judaism."[243] This scholarship suggests a continuity between Jesus' life as a wandering charismatic and the same lifestyle carried forward by followers after his death.[243] The main criterion used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity.[243] The main disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was apocalyptic.[243] Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, like John the Baptist and the apostle Paul.[243] In contrast, certain prominent North American scholars, such as Burton Mack and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-eschatological Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic sage than an apocalyptic preacher.[243]

Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible.[244] Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was a Zealot does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.[244]

Language, ethnicity, and appearance

Further information: Aramaic of Jesus and Race and appearance of Jesus
Twelve depictions of Jesus from around the world
The representation of the ethnicity of Jesus has been influenced by cultural settings.[245]

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.[246] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the first century AD include Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek, with Aramaic being predominant.[247][248] There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic.[249]

Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of first-century Palestine,[250][251][252] (Ioudaios in New Testament Greek,[lower-alpha 8] a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion (Second Temple Judaism), ethnicity (of Judea), or both).[254] In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty," and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".[255]

The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.[256][257][258] Jesus probably looked like a typical Jew of his time and according to some scholars was likely to have had a sinewy appearance due to his ascetic and itinerant lifestyle.[259] James H. Charlesworth states Jesus' face was "most likely dark brown and sun-tanned", and his stature "may have been between five feet five [1.65 m] and five feet seven [1.70 m]".[260]

Christ myth theory

Main article: Christ myth theory

The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the gospels.[261] Different proponents espouse slightly different versions of the Christ Myth Theory, but all versions go beyond the mainstream view in Historical Jesus research, which accepts that many of the events described in the gospels are not historical but which still assumes that the gospels are founded on a basic historical core.

Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a historical Jesus, there remains a strong consensus in historical-critical biblical scholarship that a historical Jesus did live in that area and in that time period.[262][263][264][265][266][267][268] However, scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus,[269] and the only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate.[270][271][272]

Perspectives on Jesus

Apart from his own disciples and followers, the Jews of Jesus' day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as do the great majority of Jews today. Christian theologians, ecumenical councils, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Manichaeans, Gnostics, Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.[273][274][275] Jesus has also had detractors, both past and present.

Christian views

The Trinity is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit

Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.[276] Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated in their catechetical or confessional texts.[277][278][279] Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, including the canonical gospels and New Testament letters such as the Pauline epistles and the Johannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.[280] Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[281]

The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus is the foundation of the Christian faith (1 Corinthians 15:12–20).[282] Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled with God and are thereby offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[283] Recalling the words of John the Baptist on the day after Jesus' baptism, these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the Lamb of God, who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God.[284][285] Jesus is thus seen as the new and last Adam, whose obedience contrasts with Adam's disobedience.[286] Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.[276]

Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there has been theological debate over his nature,[lower-alpha 9] Some early Christians viewed Jesus as subordinate to the Father, and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person.[287][288] The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesus both fully human and fully God.[288] Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and God the Son, both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.[289][290] With the Reformation, Christians such as Michael Servetus and the Socinians started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus' two natures.[288] Nontrinitarian Christian groups include The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[291] Unitarians[287] and Jehovah's Witnesses.

Christians revere not only Jesus himself, but also his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[292][293] These devotions and feasts exist in both Eastern and Western Christianity.[293]

In the 20th century, Christian groups became sharply divided in terms of how much they support historical and critical inquiry into the person of Jesus.[288] Protestant denominations allow some such investigation but differ in how far the investigation may go.[288] The Roman Catholic Church drew definite limits, but Catholic scholars have engaged in considerable critical study within those limits.[288]

Jewish views

Mainstream Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.[294] It holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.[295] According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi,[296] who delivered his prophesies in the fifth century BC.[297] A group known as Messianic Jews considers Jesus to be the Messiah, but whether this body is a sect of Judaism has been disputed since New Testament times.[298][299]

Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing. The Talmud, written and compiled from the third to the fifth century AD,[300] includes stories that some consider to be accounts of Jesus. In one such story, Yeshu ha-nozri ("Jesus the Christian"), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practicing magic.[301] There is a wide spectrum of opinion among scholars concerning these stories.[302] The majority of contemporary historians consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.[303] The Mishneh Torah, a late 12th-century work of Jewish law written by Moses Maimonides, states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".[304]

Islamic views

Main article: Jesus in Islam
Muhammad, surrounded by fire, is depicted on the right. Jesus and others are on the left
Muhammad leads Jesus, Abraham, Moses and others in prayer. Medieval Persian miniature.

A major figure in Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered to be a messenger of God (Allah) and the Messiah (al-Masih) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (Bani Isra'il) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam as Injil).[26][305] Muslims regard the gospels of the New Testament as inauthentic, and believe that Jesus' original message was lost or altered and that Muhammad came later to restore it.[306] Belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is a requirement for being a Muslim.[307] The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad[308][309]—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.[310] Jesus is considered to be neither the incarnation nor the son of God. Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism (tawhid) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry.[311] The Quran says that Jesus himself never claimed divinity,[312] and predicts that at the Last Judgment, Jesus will deny having ever made such a claim (Quran 5:116).[313] Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered a Muslim.[314]

The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary (Maryam) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God.[315][316] The Quran (21:91 and 66:12) states that God breathed His Spirit into Mary while she was chaste.[315][316] Jesus is called the "Spirit of God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,[315] but that belief does not imply his pre-existence.[317]

To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, by permission of God rather than by his own power.[312] Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as a precursor to Muhammad.[310] According to the Quran, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into the heavens by God.[318] To Muslims, it is the ascension rather than the crucifixion that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.[319] Most Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth at the end of time and defeat the Antichrist (ad-Dajjal).[26]

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has several distinct teachings about Jesus. Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in Kashmir, India.[320]

Bahá'í views

Bahá'í teachings consider Jesus to be a manifestation of God, a Bahá'í concept for prophets[321]—intermediaries between God and humanity, serving as messengers and reflecting God's qualities and attributes.[322] The Bahá'í concept emphasizes the simultaneous qualities of humanity and divinity;[322] thus, it is similar to the Christian concept of incarnation.[321] Bahá'í thought accepts Jesus as the Son of God.[323] In Bahá'í thought, Jesus was a perfect incarnation of God's attributes, but Bahá'í teachings reject the idea that divinity was contained with a single human body, stating that, on the contrary, God transcends physical reality.[321]

Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, wrote that since each manifestation of God has the same divine attributes, they can be seen as the spiritual "return" of all previous manifestations of God, and the appearance of each new manifestation of God inaugurates a religion that supersedes the former ones, a concept known as progressive revelation.[322] Bahá'ís believe that God's plan unfolds gradually through this process as mankind matures, and that some of the manifestations arrive in specific fulfillment of the missions of previous ones. Thus, Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is the promised return of Christ.[324] Bahá'í teachings confirm many, but not all, aspects of Jesus as portrayed in the gospels. Bahá'ís believe in the virgin birth and in the Crucifixion,[325][326] but see the Resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.[323][326]

Other views

In Gnosticism (now a largely extinct religion),[327] Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge (gnosis) necessary for salvation. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ at his baptism. The spirit left Jesus' body during the crucifixion but later raised the body from the dead. Some Gnostics, however, were docetics, believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to have.[328] Manichaeism, a Gnostic sect, accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster.[329][330]

Some Hindus consider Jesus to be an avatar or a sadhu and point out similarities between Krishna and Jesus' teachings.[331][332] Paramahansa Yogananda, an Indian guru, taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of Elisha and a student of John the Baptist, the reincarnation of Elijah.[333] Some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.[334] Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship Jesus Christ as a major religious teacher.[335] He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as the spirit of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like the Gautama Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius.[336] The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.[337] Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated,[338] refer to Jesus as the Master Jesus and believe that Christ, after various incarnations, occupied the body of Jesus.[339] Scientologists recognize Jesus (along with other religious figures such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, and Buddha) as part of their "religious heritage".[337][340] Atheists reject Jesus' divinity, but not all hold a negative estimation of him; Richard Dawkins, for instance, refers to Jesus as "a great moral teacher",[341] while stating in his book The God Delusion, that Jesus is praiseworthy because he did not derive his ethics from biblical scripture.[342]

Jesus had detractors, both past and present, as well. Early critics of Jesus and Christianity included Celsus in the second century and Porphyry in the third.[343][344] In the 19th century, Nietzsche was highly critical of Jesus, whose teachings he considered to be "anti-nature" in their treatment of topics such as sexuality.[345] More contemporary notable critics of Jesus include Sita Ram Goel, Christopher Hitchens, Bertrand Russell, and Dayananda Saraswati. In the 20th century, Russell wrote in Why I Am Not a Christian that Jesus was "not so wise as some other people have been, and He was certainly not superlatively wise".[346] Russell called Jesus’ vindictive nature a defect in his moral character in that Jesus in the Gospels believed in the everlasting punishment of hell, which Russell felt that no one who is "really profoundly humane can believe in".[347]

Russell also notes a repeated "vindictive fury against those people who would not listen to His preaching" which he felt "detract[s] from superlative excellence".[347]

Depictions

Main article: Depiction of Jesus
An ancient wall painting depicting Jesus
Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesus from Dura Europos in the 2nd century

Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the Dura-Europos church are firmly dated to before 256.[348] Thereafter, despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[349][245][257] As in other Early Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late second or early third century, and surviving images are found especially in the Catacombs of Rome.[350]

The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly controversial in the early church.[351][352][353] From the 5th century onward, flat painted icons became popular in the Eastern Church.[354] The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the ninth century, art was permitted again.[349] The Transfiguration was a major theme in Eastern Christian art, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.[355] Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.[354]

Before the Reformation, the crucifix was common in Western Christianity.[356] It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it.[356] The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches until recent times.[356]

Jesus appears as an infant in a manger (feed trough) in Christmas creches, which depict the Nativity scene.[357] He is typically joined by Mary, Joseph, animals, shepherds, angels, and the Magi.[357] Francis of Assisi (1181/82–1226) is credited with popularizing the creche, although he probably did not initiate it.[357] The creche reached its height of popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries in southern Europe.[357]

The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; Fra Angelico and others followed Giotto in the systematic development of uncluttered images.[349]

The Protestant Reformation brought renewed resistance to imagery, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.[358][359] The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicans and Catholics[360][361][362] and is a key element of the Eastern Orthodox tradition.[363][364]

Relics associated with Jesus

The total destruction that ensued with the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD made the survival of items from first century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the first century through the second century.[365][366][lower-alpha 10] Margaret M. Mitchell writes that although Eusebius reports (Ecclesiastical History III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for Pella just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lock down, we must accept that no first hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us.[368] However, throughout the history of Christianity a number of relics attributed to Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifixion.[369] Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty holy nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.[370]

Some relics, such as purported remnants of the Crown of Thorns, receive only a modest number of pilgrims, while the Shroud of Turin (which is associated with an approved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus), have received millions,[371] including popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI.[372][373] There is no scholarly consensus in favor for the authenticity of any relic attributed to Jesus.[374][lower-alpha 11]

See also

Bibliography

Notes

Explanatory

  1. ↑ Meier writes that Jesus' birth year is c. 7 or 6 BC.[1] Rahner states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BC.[2] Sanders also favors c. 4 BC and refers to the general consensus.[3] Finegan uses the study of early Christian traditions to support c. 3 or 2 BC.[4]
  2. ↑ Most scholars estimate 30 or 33 AD as the year of Jesus' crucifixion.[6]
  3. ↑ James Dunn writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the "almost impossible to doubt or deny" scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[7] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.[8] John Dominic Crossan and Richard G. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.[9] Paul R. Eddy and Gregory A. Boyd say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus is now "firmly established".[10]
  4. ↑ Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her son miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims believe that she conceived her son miraculously by the command of God. Joseph was from these perspectives the acting adoptive father.
  5. ↑ The New Testament records a variety of names and titles accorded to Jesus.
  6. ↑ In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman wrote, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees".[13] Richard A. Burridge states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more".[14] Robert M. Price does not believe that Jesus existed, but agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars.[15] James D.G. Dunn calls the theories of Jesus' non-existence "a thoroughly dead thesis".[16] Michael Grant (a classicist) wrote in 1977, "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary".[17] Robert E. Van Voorst states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.[18]
  7. ↑ This article uses quotes from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible.
  8. ↑ In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean (Ioudaios as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in Matthew 2, who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (basileus ton ioudaion); by both the Samaritan woman at the well and by Jesus himself in John 4; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".[253]
  9. ↑ Following the Apostolic Age, there was fierce and often politicized debate in the early church on many interrelated issues. Christology was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the first seven ecumenical councils.
  10. ↑ Flavius Josephus writing (about 5 year later c. 75 AD) in the The Jewish War (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited."[367] And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of Aelia Capitolina, no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.[366]
  11. ↑ Polarized conclusions regarding the shroud of Turin remain.[375] According to former Nature editor Philip Ball, "it's fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in 1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever. Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain deeply puzzling".[376]

Citations

  1. ↑ Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew: The roots of the problem and the person. Yale University Press. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-300-14018-7.
  2. ↑ Rahner 2004, p. 732.
  3. ↑ Sanders 1993, pp. 10–11.
  4. ↑ Finegan, Jack (1998). Handbook of Biblical Chronology, rev. ed. Hendrickson Publishers. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-56563-143-4.
  5. ↑ Brown, Raymond E. (1977). The birth of the Messiah: a commentary on the infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke. Doubleday. p. 513. ISBN 978-0-385-05907-7.
  6. ↑ Humphreys, Colin J.; Waddington, W. G. (1992). "The Jewish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ's Crucifixion" (PDF). Tyndale Bulletin 43 (2): 340.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Dunn 2003, p. 339.
  8. ↑ Ehrman 1999, p. 101.
  9. ↑ Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 96.
  10. ↑ Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 173.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Theissen & Merz 1998.
  12. ↑ Zoll, Rachel (December 19, 2011). "Study: Christian population shifts from Europe". The Guardian.
  13. ↑ Ehrman, Bart (2011). Forged: writing in the name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are. HarperCollins. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6.
  14. ↑ Burridge, Richard A.; Gould, Graham (2004). Jesus Now and Then. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8028-0977-3.
  15. ↑ Price, Robert M. (2009). "Jesus at the Vanishing Point". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity. pp. 55, 61. ISBN 978-0-8308-7853-6.
  16. ↑ Sykes, Stephen W. (2007). "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus". Sacrifice and Redemption. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-521-04460-8.
  17. ↑ Grant, Michael (1977). Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels. Scribner's. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-684-14889-2.
  18. ↑ Van Voorst 2000, p. 16.
  19. ↑ Powell 1998, pp. 168–173.
  20. ↑ Catherine Hezser The social structure of the rabbinic movement in Roman Palestine 1997 -Page 59 "b – Rabbi as an Honorary Address ... Since Jesus was called "Rabbi" but did not conform to the traditional image of post-70 Jewish rabbis, and since pre-70 sages do not bear the title "Rabbi" in the Mishnah, most scholars assume that the meaning and usage of the term "Rabbi" at the time of Jesus differed from the meaning which it acquired after the destruction of the Temple: in pre-70 times, "Rabbi" was used as an unofficial honorary address for any person held in high esteem; after 70 it was almost exclusively applied to ordained teachers of the Law."
  21. ↑ James D. G. Dunn, The Oral Gospel Tradition, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2013. pp 290-291
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Levine 2006, p. 4.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 124–125.
  24. ↑ Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. n.p.
  25. ↑ Grudem 1994, pp. 568–603.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Glassé, Cyril (2008). Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 270–271. ISBN 978-0-7425-6296-7.
  27. ↑ Quran 4:157
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Sanders, Ed P.; Pelikan, Jaroslav J. "Jesus Christ". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 13, 2013.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1  Maas, Anthony J. (1913). "Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  30. ↑ Wycliffe Bible Dictionary. entry HEBREW LANGUAGE: Hendrickson Publishers. 1975.
  31. ↑ Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. HarperOne. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-06-208994-6.
  32. ↑ "Joshua". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved August 4, 2013.
  33. ↑ Hare, Douglas (2009). Matthew. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-664-23433-1.
  34. ↑ Rogers, Cleon (1999). Topical Josephus. Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 9780310230175.
  35. ↑ Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 129.
  36. ↑ France 2007, p. 53.
  37. ↑ Doninger 1999, p. 212.
  38. ↑ Heil, John P. (2010). Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-58983-482-8.
  39. ↑ Gwynn, Murl E. (2011). Conflict: Christianity's Love Vs. Islam's Submission. iUniverse. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4620-3484-0.
  40. ↑ Vine 1940, pp. 274–275.
  41. ↑ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 30–31.
  42. ↑ Bultmann, Rudolf K. (2007). Theology of the New Testament. Baylor University Press. p. 80. ISBN 1-932792-93-7.
  43. ↑ Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 142.
  44. ↑ "G5546 Χριστιανός". Strong's Greek Lexicon. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
  45. ↑ Harding, Mark (2010). Early Christian Life and Thought in Social Context: A Reader. A & C Black. pp. 166–168. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  46. ↑ Stanton, Graham (2002). The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–18. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  47. ↑ Blomberg 2009, pp. 441–442.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Fahlbusch, Erwin (2005). The Encyclopedia of Christianity 4. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 53–56. ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Evans 2003, pp. 465–477.
  50. ↑ Bruce, Frederick F. (1988). The Book of the Acts. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-8028-2505-6.
  51. ↑ Rausch 2003, p. 77.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 Evans 2003, pp. 521–530.
  53. ↑ Brown 1997, pp. 835–840.
  54. ↑ Chilton & Evans 1998, p. 482.
  55. ↑ Roberts, Mark D. (2007). Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Crossway. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4335-1978-9.
  56. ↑ Humphreys, Colin J. (2011). The Mystery of the Last Supper: Reconstructing the Final Days of Jesus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-1-139-49631-5.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 57.5 57.6 57.7 57.8 57.9 57.10 57.11 57.12 57.13 57.14 57.15 57.16 57.17 57.18 57.19 Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Introduction," pp. 1–30.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Mark" p. 1213-1239
  59. ↑ "John, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Haffner, Paul (2008). New Testament Theology. p. 135. ISBN 978-88-902268-0-9.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Scroggie, W. Graham (1995). A Guide to the Gospels. Kregel Publications. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-8254-9571-7.
  62. ↑ "synoptic". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
  63. ↑ Moloney, Francis J.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1998). The Gospel of John. Liturgical Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8146-5806-2.
  64. ↑ Ladd, George E. (1993). A Theology of the New Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-8028-0680-2.
  65. ↑ Stoldt, Hans-Herbert, History and Criticism of the Marcan Hypothesis, Hardcover, 302 pages, Mercer Univ Pr; First Edition (October 1980), ISBN 978-0865540026
  66. ↑ Licona, Michael R. (2010). The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach. InterVarsity Press. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-0-8308-2719-0.
  67. ↑ Sanders 1993, p. 73.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Sanders 1993, p. 3.
  69. ↑ Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 108.
  70. ↑ Dunn 2003, pp. 779–781.
  71. ↑ Funk, Robert W. (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. Harper. pp. 449–495. ISBN 978-0-06-062979-3.
  72. ↑ Grudem 1994, pp. 90–91.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 117–125.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Ehrman 1999, pp. 22–23.
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 Thompson, Frank Charles. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Kirk bride Bible Co & Zondervan Bible Publishers. 1983. p. 1563–1564.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Matthew" p. 1171–1212.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Luke" p. 1240-1285.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 "John, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Rahner 2004, pp. 730–731.
  80. ↑ O'Collins, Gerald (2009). Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-19-955787-5.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Wiarda, Timothy (2010). Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology. B&H Publishing Group. pp. 75–78. ISBN 978-0-8054-4843-6.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 Turner, David L. (2008). Matthew. Baker Academic. p. 613. ISBN 978-0-8010-2684-3.
  83. ↑ Brown, Raymond E. (1978). Mary in the New Testament. Paulist Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8091-2168-7.
  84. ↑ Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 556.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 Marsh, Clive; Moyise, Steve (2006). Jesus and the Gospels. Clark International. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-567-04073-2.
  86. ↑ Morris 1992, p. 26.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 Jeffrey, David L. (1992). A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 538–540. ISBN 978-0-85244-224-1.
  88. ↑ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 30–37.
  89. ↑ Brownrigg, Ronald (2002). Who's Who in the New Testament. Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–100. ISBN 978-0-415-26036-7.
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Talbert, Charles H. (2010). Matthew. Baker Academic. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-8010-3192-2.
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible. Mayfield. pp. 272–85. ISBN 978-0-07-296548-3.
  92. ↑ Schnackenburg, Rudolf (2002). The Gospel of Matthew. Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-8028-4438-5.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Vermes, Geza (1981). Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels. Philadelphia: First Fortress. p. 283. ISBN 0-8006-1443-7.
  94. ↑ Sanders, E. P. (1995). The Historical Figure of Jesus. London: Penguin. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-140-14499-4.
  95. ↑ Aslan, Reza (2013). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Random House. pp. location 756. ISBN 978-0-679-60353-5.
  96. ↑ Perrotta, Louise B. (2000). Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today. Our Sunday Visitor Publishing. pp. 21, 110–112. ISBN 978-0-87973-573-9.
  97. ↑ Aslan, Reza (2013). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Random House. pp. location 756. ISBN 978-0-679-60353-5.; Josephus (2012). Antiquities of the Jews. Acheron Press. pp. location 21247.
  98. ↑ John Painter (April 1, 2005). Just James: The Brother of Jesus in History and Tradition. Continuum. pp. 2–4. ISBN 978-0-567-04191-3.
  99. ↑ David Gowler (September 23, 2013). James Through the Centuries. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 30–34. ISBN 978-1-118-52788-7.
  100. ↑ Liddell, Henry G.; Scott, Robert (1889). An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon. Clarendon Press. p. 797.
  101. ↑ Dickson 2008, pp. 68–69.
  102. ↑ Evans, Craig A. (2001). "Context, family and formation". In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14, 21. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Blomberg 2009, pp. 224–229.
  104. ↑ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 141–143.
  105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 McGrath 2006, pp. 16–22.
  106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 Dunn, James D.G.; Rogerson, John W. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1010. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Zanzig, Thomas (2000). Jesus of history, Christ of faith. Saint Mary's Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-88489-530-5.
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 27–31.
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 109.3 Lee 2004, pp. 21–30.
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 Harding, Mark; Nobbs, Alanna (2010). The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-8028-3318-1.
  111. ↑ Niswonger 1992, pp. 143–146.
  112. ↑ Redford 2007, p. 95–98.
  113. ↑ Sheen, Fulton J. (2008). Life of Christ. Random House. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-385-52699-9.
  114. ↑ Boring & Craddock 2004, p. 292.
  115. ↑ Brown 1988, pp. 25–27.
  116. ↑ Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 292–293.
  117. ↑ Patella, Michael F. (2009). "The Gospel According to Luke". In Durken, Daniel. New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament. Liturgical Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-8146-3260-4.
  118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 Redford 2007, pp. 117–130.
  119. ↑ Vaught, Carl G. (2001). The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation. Baylor University Press. pp. xi–xiv. ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3.
  120. ↑ Redford 2007, pp. 143–160.
  121. ↑ Nash, Henry S. (1909). "Transfiguration, The". In Jackson, Samuel M. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11. Funk & Wagnalls Company. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4286-3189-2.
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 122.3 Barton, Stephen C. The Cambridge companion to the Gospels. Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-0-521-80766-1.
  123. ↑ Cox & Easley 2007, p. 137.
  124. ↑ Redford 2007, pp. 211–229.
  125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 125.2 125.3 125.4 125.5 Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 155–170.
  126. ↑ Redford 2007, pp. 257–274.
  127. ↑ France 2007, p. 102.
  128. ↑ Stassen, Glen H.; Gushee, David P. (2003). Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context. InterVarsity Press. pp. 102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298. ISBN 978-0-8308-2668-1.
  129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 Osborn, Eric F. (1993). The emergence of Christian theology. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-521-43078-4.
  130. ↑ Köstenberger, Andreas J. (1998). The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-8028-4255-8.
  131. ↑ Pentecost, J. Dwight (1998). The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher. Kregel Publications. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8254-9715-5.
  132. ↑ Howick, E. Keith (2003). The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah. WindRiver Publishing. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-886249-02-8.
  133. ↑ Lisco, Friedrich G. (1850). The Parables of Jesus. Daniels and Smith Publishers. pp. 9–11.
  134. ↑ Oxenden, Ashton (1864). The parables of our Lord?. William Macintosh Publishers. p. 6.
  135. ↑ Blomberg, Craig L. (2012). Interpreting the Parables. InterVarsity Press. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-8308-3967-4.
  136. ↑ Boucher, Madeleine I. "The Parables". BBC. Retrieved June 3, 2013.
  137. ↑ Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 299.
  138. ↑ Phillips, John (2007). Jesus Our Lord: 24 Portraits of Christ Throughout Scripture. Kregel Publications. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8254-9617-2.
  139. ↑ Twelftree 1999, p. 350.
  140. ↑ Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 300.
  141. ↑ Hindson, Edward E.; Mitchell, Daniel R. (2010). Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament. Zondervan. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-310-25150-7.
  142. ↑ 142.0 142.1 Achtemeier, Paul J.; Green, Joel B.; Thompson, Marianne M. (2001). Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-8028-3717-2.
  143. ↑ Ehrman, Bart D. (2009). Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (And Why We Don't Know About Them). HarperCollins. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-06-186328-8.
  144. ↑ Twelftree 1999, p. 236.
  145. ↑ van der Loos, Hendrik (1965). The Miracles Of Jesus. Brill. p. 197.
  146. ↑ Pentecost, J. Dwight (1981). The words and works of Jesus Christ. Zondervan. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6.
  147. ↑ Twelftree 1999, p. 95.
  148. ↑ Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 182.
  149. ↑ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Miracles of the Bible. Zondervan. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-310-28101-6.
  150. ↑ Kingsbury, Jack D. (1983). The Christology of Mark's Gospel. Fortress Press. pp. 91–95. ISBN 978-1-4514-1007-5.
  151. ↑ Karris, Robert J. (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament. Liturgical Press. pp. 885–886. ISBN 978-0-8146-2211-7.
  152. ↑ Kingsbury, Jack D.; Powell, Mark A.; Bauer, David R. (1999). Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology. Westminster John Knox Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-664-25752-1.
  153. ↑ Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 336.
  154. ↑ Yieh, John Y. H. (2004). One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 240–241. ISBN 978-3-11-018151-7.
  155. ↑ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 53–54.
  156. ↑ Lee 2004, pp. 72–76.
  157. ↑ May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. p. 1481.
  158. ↑ 158.0 158.1 Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 256–258.
  159. ↑ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 133–134.
  160. ↑ 160.0 160.1 Evans 2003, pp. 381–395.
  161. ↑ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zondervan. pp. 106–111. ISBN 978-0-310-28011-8.
  162. ↑ Hayes, Doremus A. (2009). The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts. HardPress. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-313-53490-1.
  163. ↑ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 180–191.
  164. ↑ 164.0 164.1 Cox & Easley 2007, p. 182.
  165. ↑ Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (2005). "Eucharist". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
  166. ↑  Pohle, Joseph (1913). "The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacrament". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  167. ↑ Freedman 2000, p. 792.
  168. ↑ 168.0 168.1 Perkins, Pheme (2000). Peter: apostle for the whole church. Fortress Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4514-1598-8.
  169. ↑ Lange, Johann P. (1865). The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1. Charles Scribner Co. p. 499.
  170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 170.2 170.3 170.4 170.5 Walvoord & Zuck 1983, pp. 83–85.
  171. ↑ O'Day, Gail R.; Hylen, Susan (2006). John. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 142–168. ISBN 978-0-664-25260-1.
  172. ↑ Ridderbos, Herman (1997). The Gospel according to John. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 546–576. ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2.
  173. ↑ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, p. 169.
  174. ↑ 174.0 174.1 174.2 174.3 174.4 174.5 174.6 Evans 2003, pp. 487–500.
  175. ↑ Brown 1997, p. 146.
  176. ↑ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1988). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 1050–1052. ISBN 978-0-8028-3782-0.
  177. ↑ 177.0 177.1 177.2 Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–400.
  178. ↑ 178.0 178.1 178.2 178.3 178.4 Holman Concise Bible Dictionary. B&H Publishing Group. 2011. pp. 608–609. ISBN 978-0-8054-9548-5.
  179. ↑ Evans 2003, p. 495.
  180. ↑ Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–398.
  181. ↑ O'Toole, Robert F. (2004). Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology. Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico. p. 166. ISBN 978-88-7653-625-0.
  182. ↑ Binz, Stephen J. (2004). The Names of Jesus. Twenty-Third Publications. pp. 81–82. ISBN 978-1-58595-315-8.
  183. ↑ Ironside, H. A. (2006). John. Kregel Academic. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-8254-9619-6.
  184. ↑ 184.0 184.1 Niswonger 1992, p. 172.
  185. ↑ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, p. 181.
  186. ↑ 186.0 186.1 Carter 2003, pp. 120–121.
  187. ↑ Blomberg 2009, pp. 400–401.
  188. ↑ Brown 1988, p. 93.
  189. ↑ Senior, Donald (1985). The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew. Liturgical Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-8146-5460-6.
  190. ↑ Blomberg 2009, p. 402.
  191. ↑ 191.0 191.1 191.2 191.3 191.4 191.5 191.6 Evans 2003, pp. 509–520.
  192. ↑ 192.0 192.1 Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 211–214.
  193. ↑ Doninger 1999, p. 271.
  194. ↑ Doninger 1999, p. 271.
  195. ↑ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 213–214.
  196. ↑ Morris 1992, p. 727.
  197. ↑ 197.0 197.1 Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 216–226.
  198. ↑ Frederick F., Bruce (1990). The Acts of the Apostles. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8028-0966-7.
  199. ↑ 199.0 199.1 Johnson, Luke T.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1992). The Acts of the Apostles. Liturgical Press. pp. 164–167. ISBN 978-0-8146-5807-9.
  200. ↑  Van den Biesen, Christian (1913). "Apocalypse". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  201. ↑ Levine 2006, p. 5.
  202. ↑ Witherington 1997, pp. 9–13.
  203. ↑ Powell 1998, pp. 19–23.
  204. ↑ Keener, Craig S. (2012). The Historical Jesus of the Gospels. William B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8028-6292-1.
  205. ↑ 205.0 205.1 Chilton & Evans 1998, p. 27.
  206. ↑ Evans 2012, pp. 4–5.
  207. ↑ Borg, Marcus J. (1994). Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship. Continuum. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-1-56338-094-5.
  208. ↑ Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 142–143.
  209. ↑ Anderson, Paul N.; Just, Felix; Thatcher, Tom (2007). John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-58983-293-0.
  210. ↑ Meier 2006, p. 124.
  211. ↑ 211.0 211.1 Blomberg 2009, pp. 431–436.
  212. ↑ Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "The Gospel of Thomas," p 471-532.
  213. ↑ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). Chapter 2. Christian sources about Jesus.
  214. ↑ Tuckett, Christopher (2001). "Sources and methods". In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge Companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–4. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1. All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus’ very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score.
  215. ↑ Van Voorst 2000, pp. 39–53.
  216. ↑ Van Voorst 2000, p. 83.
  217. ↑ Maier, Paul L. (1995). Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6.
  218. ↑ Evans, Craig A. (2001). Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies. Brill. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-391-04118-9.
  219. ↑ Reed 2002, p. 18.
  220. ↑ 220.0 220.1 Gowler, David B. (2007). What are they saying about the historical Jesus?. Paulist Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8091-4445-7.
  221. ↑ Charlesworth, James H., ed. (2006). "Jesus and Archaeology". Jesus and archaeology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8028-4880-2.
  222. ↑ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114.
  223. ↑ Maier 1989, p. 124.
  224. ↑ "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 2015-02-16. Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord
  225. ↑ Meier 2006, pp. 126–128.
  226. ↑ Powell 1998, p. 47.
  227. ↑ Murphy, Catherine (2003). John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age. Liturgical Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-8146-5933-5.
  228. ↑ Rausch 2003, pp. 36–37.
  229. ↑ Anderson, Paul N.; Just, Felix; Thatcher, Tom (2007). John, Jesus, and History, Volume 2. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 291. ISBN 978-1-58983-293-0.
  230. ↑ Bauckham, Richard (2006). Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-8028-3162-0.
  231. ↑ Borg, Marcus J. (2006). "The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus". In Dunn, James D.G.; McKnight, Scot. The Historical Jesus in Recent Research. Eisenbrauns. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-57506-100-9.
  232. ↑ Bruce Gibson, Thomas Harrison: Polybius and His World, p.26, 2013; Oxford Univ. Press, ISBN 978-0199608409
  233. ↑ Bruce Metzger, New Testament Tools and Studies, Vol. 10, p 89: 1980, Brill. Metzger noted Wenger, Stauffer, Sordi, Lagrange, L.Herrmann, S.Losch, Blaiklock and Gaurducci also held this view.
  234. ↑ John G. Gager, "Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World" (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 179.
  235. ↑ Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 4–5.
  236. ↑ Witherington 1997, p. 77.
  237. ↑ Witherington.
  238. ↑ Witherington III, Ben. Jesus the sage. Fortress Press. 2000.
  239. ↑ Theissen & Winter 2002, p. 5.
  240. ↑ "Historical Jesus, Quest of the". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 775. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
  241. ↑ Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-521-81239-9.
  242. ↑ Brown, Colin (2011). "Why Study the Historical Jesus?". In Holmen, Tom; Porter, Stanley E. Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus. Brill. p. 1416. ISBN 978-90-04-16372-0.
  243. ↑ 243.0 243.1 243.2 243.3 243.4 243.5 243.6 243.7 Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). Chapter 1. The quest of the historical Jesus. p. 1–15.
  244. ↑ 244.0 244.1 "Jesus Christ." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  245. ↑ 245.0 245.1 Erricker, Clive (1987). Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach. James Clarke & Co. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7188-2634-5.
  246. ↑ Green, McKnight & Marshall 1992, p. 442.
  247. ↑ Barr, James (1970). "Which language did Jesus speak". Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 53 (1): 9–29.
  248. ↑ Porter, Stanley E. (1997). Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament. Brill. pp. 110–112. ISBN 978-90-04-09921-0.
  249. ↑ Dunn 2003, pp. 313–315.
  250. ↑ Ehrman 1999, p. 96.
  251. ↑ Stoutzenberger, Joseph (2000). Celebrating sacraments. St Mary's Press. p. 286.
  252. ↑ Murphy, Frederick (1991). The religious world of Jesus: an introduction to Second Temple Palestinian Judaism. Abingdon Press. p. 311.
  253. ↑ Elliott, John (2007). "Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew' nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature". Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 5 (119): 119. doi:10.1177/1476869007079741.
  254. ↑ See for example:
  255. ↑ Levine 2006, p. 10.
  256. ↑ Jensen, Robin M. (2010). "Jesus in Christian art". In Burkett, Delbert. The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 477–502. ISBN 978-1-4443-5175-0.
  257. ↑ 257.0 257.1 Perkinson, Stephen (2009). The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France. University of Chicago Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-226-65879-7.
  258. ↑ Kidd, Colin (2006). The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–51. ISBN 978-1-139-45753-8.
  259. ↑ Gibson, David (February 21, 2004). "What Did Jesus Really Look Like?". New York Times.
  260. ↑ Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. Abingdon Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-687-02167-3.
  261. ↑ Bart Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist? Harper Collins, 2012, p. 12, ""In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist . Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by Earl Doherty in Jesus: Neither God Nor Man. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii-viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition."
  262. ↑ James D. G. Dunn "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus" in Sacrifice and Redemption edited by S. W. Sykes (Dec 3, 2007) Cambridge University Press ISBN 052104460X pages 35-36
  263. ↑ Jesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (Apr 1, 2004) ISBN 0802809774 page 34
  264. ↑ Jesus by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 page 200
  265. ↑ The Gospels and Jesus by Graham Stanton, 1989 ISBN 0192132415 Oxford University Press, page 145
  266. ↑ Robert E. Van Voorst Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 page 16
  267. ↑ Did Jesus Exist?:The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. HarperCollins, USA. 2012. ISBN 978-0-06-220460-8.
  268. ↑ B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged : writing in the name of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285
  269. ↑ Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 page 181
  270. ↑ Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339 states of baptism and crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".
  271. ↑ Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus by William R. Herzog (4 Jul 2005) ISBN 0664225284 pages 1-6
  272. ↑ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.
  273. ↑ Watson, Francis (2001). "The quest for the real Jesus". In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.
  274. ↑ Evans, C. Stephen (1996). The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith. Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 978-0-19-152042-6.
  275. ↑ Delbert, Burkett (2010). The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4443-5175-0.
  276. ↑ 276.0 276.1 McGrath 2006, pp. 4–6.
  277. ↑ Jackson, Gregory L. (1993). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. Christian News. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3.
  278. ↑ McGuckin, John A. (2010). The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-1-4443-9383-5.
  279. ↑ Leith, John H. (1993). Basic Christian doctrine. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-664-25192-5.
  280. ↑ Schreiner, Thomas R. (2008). New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ. Baker Academic. pp. 23–37. ISBN 978-0-8010-2680-5.
  281. ↑ "Great Schism". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
  282. ↑ "The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
  283. ↑ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 649. ISBN 978-0-19-974391-9.
  284. ↑ Cullmann, Oscar (1959). The Christology of the New Testament. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-664-24351-7.
  285. ↑ Deme, Dániel (2004). The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 199–200. ISBN 978-0-7546-3779-0.
  286. ↑ Pannenberg, Wolfhart (2004). Systematic Theology 2. Continuum. pp. 297–303. ISBN 978-0-567-08466-8.
  287. ↑ 287.0 287.1 "Antitrinitarianism." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  288. ↑ 288.0 288.1 288.2 288.3 288.4 288.5 Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. "Jesus Christ." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  289. ↑ Friedmann, Robert. "Antitrinitarianism". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
  290. ↑  Joyce, George H. (1913). "Blessed Trinity". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  291. ↑ "Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism", MormonNewsroom.org (LDS Church), retrieved October 21, 2014
  292. ↑ Hunter, Sylvester (2010). Outlines of dogmatic theology 2. Nabu Press. p. 443. ISBN 978-1-177-95809-7.
  293. ↑ 293.0 293.1 Houlden 2006, p. 426.
  294. ↑ Kessler, Ed. "Jesus the Jew". BBC. Retrieved June 18, 2013.
  295. ↑ Norman, Asher (2007). Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus. Feldheim Publishers. pp. 59–70. ISBN 978-0-9771937-0-7.
  296. ↑ Simmons, Shraga (March 6, 2004). "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus". Aish.com.
  297. ↑ "MALACHI, BOOK OF". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
  298. ↑ Haberman, Clyde (February 11, 1993). "Jerusalem Journal; Jews Who Call Jesus Messiah: Get Out, Says Israel". New York Times.
  299. ↑ Rudolph, David; Willitts, Joel (February 3, 2013). Introduction to Messianic Judaism: Its Ecclesial Context and Biblical Foundations. Michigan: Zondervan. p. 336. ISBN 978-0310330639.
  300. ↑ "TALMUD". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
  301. ↑ Kessler, Edward; Wenborn, Neil (2005). A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-139-44750-8.
  302. ↑ Van Voorst 2000, p. 108.
  303. ↑ Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 74–75.
  304. ↑ Jeffrey, Grant R. (2009). Heaven: The Mystery of Angels. Random House Digital. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-307-50940-6.
  305. ↑ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.
  306. ↑ Paget, James C. (2001). "Quests for the historical Jesus". In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Cambridge companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.
  307. ↑ Ashraf, Irshad (Director) (August 19, 2007). The Muslim Jesus (Television production). ITV Productions.
  308. ↑ "Jesus, Son of Mary". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
  309. ↑ Aboul-Enein, Youssef H. (2010). Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat. Naval Institute Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-61251-015-6.
  310. ↑ 310.0 310.1 Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 241, 274–275. ISBN 978-0-631-20125-0.
  311. ↑ George, Timothy (2002). Is the Father of Jesus the God of Muhammad?: Understanding the Differences Between Christianity and Islam. Zondervan. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-310-24748-7.
  312. ↑ 312.0 312.1 Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. ABC-CLIO. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-313-36025-1.
  313. ↑ Understanding Islam: Basic Principles. Garnet & Ithaca Press. 2000. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-1-85964-134-7.
  314. ↑ Shedinger, Robert F. (2009). Was Jesus a Muslim?: Questioning Categories in the Study of Religion. Fortress Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4514-1727-2.
  315. ↑ 315.0 315.1 315.2 Burns, Robert A. (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West. University Press of America. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7618-5560-6.
  316. ↑ 316.0 316.1 Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
  317. ↑ Cooper, Anne; Maxwell, Elsie A. (2003). Ishmael My Brother: A Christian Introduction To Islam. Monarch Books. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8254-6223-8.
  318. ↑ Quran 4:157
  319. ↑ Khalidi, Tarif (2001). The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature. Harvard University Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780674004771.
  320. ↑ Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices. ABC-CLIO. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.
  321. ↑ 321.0 321.1 321.2 Stockman, Robert (1992). "Jesus Christ in the Bahá'í Writings". Bahá'í Studies Review 2 (1).
  322. ↑ 322.0 322.1 322.2 Cole, Juan (1982). "The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í Writings". Bahá'í Studies 9: 1–38.
  323. ↑ 323.0 323.1 Smith, Peter (2000). "peace". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oneworld Publications. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.
  324. ↑ Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith. Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6.
  325. ↑ Lepard, Brian D. (2008). In the Glory of the Father: The Bahai Faith and Christianity. Bahai Publishing. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-931847-34-6.
  326. ↑ 326.0 326.1 Cole, Juan R. I. (1997). "Behold the Man: Baha'u'llah on the Life of Jesus". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 65 (1): 51, 56, 60.
  327. ↑ McManners, John (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-285439-1.
  328. ↑ Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles For Scripture And The Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-0-19-518249-1.
  329. ↑ Bevan, A. A. (1930). Hastings, James, ed. Manichaeism. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 8 (Kessinger Publishing). ISBN 978-0-7661-3666-3.
  330. ↑ Brown, Peter R. L. (2000). Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-520-22757-6.
  331. ↑ Rishi Das, Shaunaka (March 24, 2009). "Jesus in Hinduism". BBC.
  332. ↑ Lal Goel, Madan. "RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND HINDUISM" (PDF). University of West Florida. Retrieved June 4, 2013.
  333. ↑ Yogananda, Paramahansa (2008). Autobiography of a Yogi. Diamond Pocket Books. ISBN 978-81-902562-0-9.
  334. ↑ Beverley, James A. (June 11, 2011). "Hollywood's Idol". Christianity Today.
  335. ↑ Janet 2012, p. 3.
  336. ↑ Janet 2012, p. 9.
  337. ↑ 337.0 337.1 Hutson, Steven (2006). What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus. City Boy Enterprises. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-59886-300-0.
  338. ↑ Pike, Sarah M. (2004). New Age and neopagan religions in America. Columbia University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-231-12402-7.
  339. ↑ Bailey, Alice; Khul, Djwhal (2005). A Treatise on Cosmic Fire. Lucis Publishing Company. pp. 678, 1150, 1193. ISBN 978-0-85330-117-2.
  340. ↑ "What Is Scientology's View of Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, The Buddha and Other Religious Figures of the Past?". Church of Scientology International. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
  341. ↑ Hallowell, Billy (October 25, 2011). "Richard Dawkins: 'Jesus Would Have Been an Atheist if He Had Known What We Know Today'". TheBlaze.
  342. ↑ Richard Dawkins. "The God Delusion". Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 284. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
  343. ↑ Chadwick, Henry, ed. (1980). Contra Celsum. Cambridge University Press. p. xxviii. ISBN 978-0-521-29576-5.
  344. ↑ Stevenson, J. (1987). Frend, W. H. C., ed. A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of the Church to AD 337. SPCK. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-281-04268-5.
  345. ↑ Nietzsche, Friedrich (2010). Twilight of the Idols, Morality as Anti-nature. Digireads.com Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4209-3717-6.
  346. ↑ Russell, Bertrand (2004). Why I am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. Routledge Classics. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-671-20323-8.
  347. ↑ 347.0 347.1 Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell. Routledge. 1999. p. 86.
  348. ↑ Gutmann, Joseph (1992). "Early Christian and Jewish Art". In Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei. Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism. Wayne State University Press. pp. 283–284. ISBN 0814323618.
  349. ↑ 349.0 349.1 349.2 Houlden 2006, pp. 63–99.
  350. ↑ Benedetto, Robert (2006). The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 51–53. ISBN 978-0-664-22416-5.
  351. ↑ Schaff, Phillip (July 1, 2006). History of the Christian Church,8 volumes, 3rd edition. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 9781565631960.
  352. ↑ Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF
  353. ↑ Synod of Elvira, 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36
  354. ↑ 354.0 354.1 "Icons." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  355. ↑ Bigham, Steven (1995). The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. pp. 226–227. ISBN 978-1-879038-15-8.
  356. ↑ 356.0 356.1 356.2 "Crucifix." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  357. ↑ 357.0 357.1 357.2 357.3 "Creche." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
  358. ↑ Michalski, Sergiusz (1993). Reformation and the Visual Arts. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 978-1-134-92102-7.
  359. ↑ Payton, James R. (2007). Light from the Christian East: An Introduction to the Orthodox Tradition. InterVarsity Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0-8308-2594-3.
  360. ↑ Williams, Rowan (2003). The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-8028-2778-4.
  361. ↑ Wojtyła, Karol J. "General audience 29 October 1997". Vatican Publishing House. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
  362. ↑ Ratzinger, Joseph A. "General audience 6 May 2009". Vatican Publishing House. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
  363. ↑ Doninger 1999, p. 231.
  364. ↑ Casiday, Augustine (2012). The Orthodox Christian World. Routledge. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-415-45516-9.
  365. ↑ Levine 2006, p. 24-25.
  366. ↑ 366.0 366.1 Helmut Koester Introduction to the New Testament, Vol. 1: History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age. Berlin: de Gruyter Press, 1995 p 382
  367. ↑ Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War Book VII, section 1.1"
  368. ↑ Margaret M. Mitchell "The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine" Cambridge University Press 2006 p 298
  369. ↑ Dillenberger 1999, p. 5.
  370. ↑  Thurston, Herbert (1913). "Holy Nails". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  371. ↑ Delaney, Sarah (May 24, 2010). "Shroud exposition closes with more than 2 million visits". Catholic News Service.
  372. ↑ Wojtyła, Karol J. (May 24, 1998). "Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral". Vatican Publishing House.
  373. ↑ Squires, Nick (May 3, 2010). "Pope Benedict says Shroud of Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus". Christian Science Monitor.
  374. ↑ Nickell, Joe (2007). Relics of the Christ. University Press of Kentucky. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-8131-3731-5.
  375. ↑ Habermas, Gary R. "Shroud of Turin." The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization (2011). doi:10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1257
  376. ↑ Ball, P. (2008). "Material witness: Shrouded in mystery". Nature Materials 7 (5): 349. doi:10.1038/nmat2170. PMID 18432204.
  377. ↑
  378. ↑ Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.

External links

Listen to this article (info/dl)


This audio file was created from a revision of the "Jesus" article dated October 28, 2013, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
More spoken articles