Jainism

Jainism

The symbol of Jainism (representing non-violence)
Total population
about 5 million
Founder
Rishabha
Regions with significant populations
India, United States, Kenya, United Kingdom, Canada
Scriptures
Agama
Languages
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Gujarati, Hindi, Marwari

Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/^[1] or /ˈdʒaɪnɪzəm/^[2]), traditionally known as Jin Sashana or Jain dharma (Sanskrit: जैन धर्म),^[3] is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of nonviolence (ahimsa) towards all living beings. Practitioners believe that nonviolence and self-control are the means by which they can obtain liberation. The three main principles of Jainism are Non-violence (Ahimsa), Non-Absolutism (Anekantavada) and Non-Possessiveness (Aparigraha). Followers of Jainism take 5 major vows: non-violence, non-lying, non-stealing, chastity, and non-attachment. Asceticism is thus a major focus of the Jain faith.

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world.^[4] The word Jainism is derived from the Sanskrit word jina ("conqueror"), referring to those who have conquered the battle with bodily pleasures and passions such as desire, hatred, anger, greed, pride, etc.^[5]

Jains traditionally trace their history through a succession of twenty-four propagators of their faith known as tirthankaras with Rishabh as the first and Mahāvīra as the last of the current era.

Doctrine

Part of a series on
Jainism
Jain Prayers Bhaktamara Stotra Micchami Dukkadam Ṇamōkāra mantra
Philosophy Anekantavada Cosmology Ahimsa Karma Dharma Mokṣa Kevala Jnana Dravya Tattva Asteya Brahmacharya Aparigraha Gunasthana Saṃsāra Satya
Major figures The 24 Tirthankaras Rishabha Pārśva Mahavira Acharya Ganadhara Siddhasena Divakara Haribhadra
Major Sects Digambara Śvētāmbara
Texts Kalpa Sūtra Agama Tattvartha Sutra Nālaṭiyār
Other Parasparopagraho Jivanam Jain symbols Jain flag Timeline Topics list Schools and Branches
Festivals Diwali Mahavir Jayanti Paryushana Samvatsari
Jainism portal

Non-violence

The principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) is the most fundamental and well known aspect of Jain religious practice.^[6] The everyday implementation of ahimsa is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity.^[7][8] Non-violence is practiced first and foremost during interactions with other human beings, and Jains believe in avoiding harm to others through actions, speech and thoughts.^[9]

In addition to other humans, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence towards all living beings. As this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice, Jains recognize a hierarchy of life, which gives more protection to humans followed by animals followed by insects followed by plants. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain practice with the majority of Jains practicing lacto-vegetarianism. If there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is also encouraged. After humans and animals, insects are the next living being offered protection in Jain practice with avoidance of intentional harm to insects emphasized. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed. Intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent per Jainism.

After nonviolence towards humans, animals and insects, Jains make efforts not to injure plants any more than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival. Strict Jains, including Jain monks and nuns, do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic, because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and also because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a living being.^[10]

Jainism has a very elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Per Jainism, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.^[11]

Violence or war in self-defense may be justified, but this must only be used as a last resort after peaceful measures have been thoroughly exhausted.^[12]

Mahatma Gandhi notably practiced and preached ahimsa.

Non-absolutism

The second main principle of Jainism is non-absolutism (anēkāntavāda). For Jains, non-absolutism means maintaining open-mindedness. This includes the recognition of all perspectives and a humble respect for differences in beliefs. Jainism encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. The principle of anekāntavāda influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance and ahiṃsā.^[13]

Anekāntavāda emphasizes the principles of pluralism (multiplicity of viewpoints) and to the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, no single one of which is complete.^[14][15]

Jains illustrate this theory through the parable of the blind men and an elephant. In this story, each blind man feels a different part of an elephant: its trunk, leg, ear, and so on. All of them claim to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant but, due to their limited perspectives, can only partly succeed.^[16] The concept of anēkāntavāda extends to and is further explained by Syādvāda (below).

Non-possessiveness

The third main principle in Jainism is non-possessiveness (aparigraha). This is the concept of greedlessness or non-grasping and includes non-materialism. Jainism emphasizes taking no more than is truly necessary. While ownership of objects is allowed, non-attachment to possessions is taught. Followers should minimize the tendency to hoard unnecessary material possessions and limit attachment to current possessions. Further, wealth and possessions should be shared and donated whenever possible. Jainism believes that unchecked attachment to possessions can lead to direct harm to oneself and others.

Five main vows

Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and through reliance on self-control through vows.^[17] Jains accept different levels of compliance for strict followers and laymen.^[17] Followers of this religion undertake five major vows:

1. Ahimsa: Ahimsa means nonviolence. The first major vow taken by followers is to cause no harm to living beings. It involves minimizing intentional and unintentional harm to other living creatures by actions, speech or thoughts.
2. Satya: Satya means truth. This vow is to always speak the truth. Given that non-violence has priority, other principles yield to it whenever they conflict: in a situation where speaking truth could lead to violence, silence may be observed.^[17]
3. Asteya: Asteya means not stealing. Jains should not take anything that is not willingly offered.^[17] Attempting to extort material wealth from others or to exploit the weak is considered theft. Fair value should be given for all goods and services purchased.
4. Brahmacharya: Brahmacharya means chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain monks and nuns. This requires the exercise of control over the senses to control indulgence in sexual activity.^[18]
5. Aparigraha: Aparigraha means non-possessiveness. This includes non-materialism and non-attachment to objects, places and people.^[17] Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations.

Monks and nuns are obligated to practice the five cardinal principles of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness very strictly, while laymen are encouraged to observe them within their current practical limitations.^[17]

Additionally, Jainism identifies four passions of the mind:

1. Anger
2. Pride (Ego)
3. Deceitfulness
4. Greed

Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceitfulness by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.

Practice and customs

Practice

Prayer

The Namōkāra mantra is the fundamental prayer of Jainism and may be recited at any time. In this mantra, Jains worship the virtues of the spiritually supreme in order to adopt similar behavior. The prayer does not name any one particular person. Jains are encouraged to not ask for favors or material goods during prayer.^[19] In Jainism, the purpose of worship or prayer is to break the barriers of worldly attachments and desires, so as to assist in the liberation of the soul.

Fasting

Most Jains fast throughout the year, particularly during festivals (fasting in Jainism). This takes on various forms and may be practiced based on one's ability. Some examples include: eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only water all day, not eating after sunset, not eating processed foods, eating food without sugar/oil/salt. Two purposes of fasting are to exercise self-control and to clear the mind to devote more mental energy to prayer.

Meditation

Jains have developed a type of meditation called samayika, a term derived from the word samaya. The goal of Samayika is to achieve a feeling of perfect calmness and to understand the unchanging truth of the self. Such meditation is based on contemplation of the universe and the reincarnation of self.^[20] Samayika is particularly important during the religious festival Paryushana. It is believed that meditation assists in managing and balancing one's passions. Great emphasis is placed on the internal control of thoughts, as they influence behavior, actions and goals.^[21]

Jains follow six duties known as avashyakas: samyika (practising serenity), chaturvimshati (praising the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and monks), pratikramana (introspection), kayotsarga (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation).^[22]

Events and rituals

Important events

Paryushana is the most important annual event for Jains, and is usually celebrated in August or September. It lasts 8–10 days and is a time when lay people increase their level of spiritual intensity often using fasting, study and prayer/meditation to help. The five main vows are emphasized during this time. There are no set rules, and followers are encouraged to practice according to their ability and desires. The last day involves a focused prayer/meditation session known as Samvatsari Pratikramana. At the conclusion of the festival, followers request forgiveness from others for any offenses committed during the last year. Forgiveness is asked by saying "Micchami Dukkadam" to others, which means "If I have caused you offence in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together."^[23]

Mahāvīra Jayanti, the birthday of Mahāvīra, the last tirthankara, is usually celebrated in late March or early April based on the lunar calendar.^[24]

Diwali is a festival that marks the anniversary of attainment of Nirvana of Lord Mahavira, the last of the Jain Tirthankar of this era. It is celebrated at the same time as the Hindu festival of Diwali. Diwali is celebrated in an atmosphere of austerity, simplicity, serenity, equity, calmness, charity, philanthropy and environment-consciousness. Jain temples, homes, offices, shops are decorated with lights and diyas. The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed to each other. The new Jain year starts right after Diwali.

Rituals

There are many Jain rituals including ones involving idol worshiping, depending on the sect. One example related to the five life events of tirthankara called the Panch Kalyanaka are rituals such as the panch kalyanaka pratishtha, panch kalyanaka puja, and snatra puja.^[25][26]

Monastic life

In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Jain monks and nuns live extremely austere and ascetic lifestyles. They follow the five main vows of Jainism absolutely. Jain monks and nuns have neither a permanent home nor possessions. They do not use vehicles and always travel barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They wander from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. They do not use telephones or electricity. They do not prepare food and live only on what people offer them. Jain monks and nuns also usually keep a cloth for ritual mouth-covering to avoid inadvertently harming micro-organisms in the air. Most will carry a broomlike object (Rayoharan), made from dense, thick thread strands, to sweep the ground ahead of them, or before sitting down, to avoid inadvertently crushing small insects.^[27]

The monks of Jainism, whose presence is not needed for most Jain rituals, should not be confused with priests. However, some sects of Jainism often employ a pujari, who need not be a Jain, to perform special daily rituals and other priestly duties at the temple.^[28]

Philosophy

Soul and karma

According to Jains, souls are intrinsically pure and possess the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite energy in their ideal state.^[29] In contemporary experience, however, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed due to the soul's association with a substance called karma.^[30] This bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by the analogy with gold, which is always found mixed with impurities in its natural state. Similarly, the ideal pure state of the soul is always mixed with the impurities of karma. Just like gold, purification of the soul may be achieved if the proper methods of refining are applied.^[30] The Jain karmic theory attaches responsibility to individual action and is cited to explain inequalities, sufferings and pain.

Tattva

Jain metaphysics is based on seven or nine fundamentals which are known as tattva, which attempt to explain the nature of the human predicament and to provide solutions to it:^[31]

1. Jīva: The essence of living beings is called jiva, a substance which is different from the body that houses it. Consciousness, knowledge and perception are its fundamental attributes.
2. Ajīva: Non-living entities that consist of matter, space and time.
3. Asrava: The interaction between jīva and ajīva causes the influx of karma (a particular form of ajiva) into the soul to which it adheres.
4. Bandha: The karma masks the jiva and restricts it from having its true potential of perfect knowledge and perception.
5. Saṃvara: Through right conduct, it is possible to stop the influx of additional karma.
6. Nirjarā: By performing asceticism, it is possible to discard the existing karma.
7. Mokṣa: The liberated jiva which has removed its karma and is said to have the pure, intrinsic quality of perfect knowledge.

Some authors add two additional categories: the meritorious and demeritorious acts related to karma. These are called puńya and pāpa respectively. These fundamentals acts as the basis for the Jain metaphysics.

Syādvāda

Syādvāda is the doctrine extending from non-absolutism (anēkāntavāda). This recommends the expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet Syād to every phrase or expression.^[32] The Sanskrit etymological root of the term syād is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in the context of syādvāda it means "in some ways" or "from some perspective." As reality is complex, no single proposition can express its full nature. The term syāt- should therefore be prefixed to each proposition, giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism from the statement.^[33] There are seven conditioned propositions (saptibhaṅgī) in syādvāda as follows:^[34]

1. syād-asti—in some ways, it is;
2. syād-nāsti—in some ways, it is not;
3. syād-asti-nāsti—in some ways, it is, and it is not;
4. syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable;
5. syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable;
6. syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable;
7. syād-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is indescribable.

Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode.^[34] To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism.^[15]

Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints.^[35] Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words: naya ("partial viewpoint") and vada ("school of thought or debate"). It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view. Every object has infinite aspects, but when we describe one in practice, we speak only of relevant aspects and ignore the irrelevant.^[35] Nayavāda holds that philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue"— although we may not realize it. While operating within the limits of language and perceiving the complex nature of reality, Māhavīra used the language of nayas. Naya, being a partial expression of truth, enables us to comprehend reality part by part.^[36]

Non-absolutism (anēkāntavāda) is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. Only Kevalins—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge.^[37] Accordingly, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth.^[14]

Three gems

The following three gems of Jainism lay down the path to achieve liberation of the soul (moksha).^[38]-

1. Right View (Samyak Darshana) - Having the right perception and seeking the truth while avoiding preconceptions that get in the way of seeing things clearly.
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Gyana) - Having the right knowledge of Jain principles.
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra) - Applying Jain principles to your life.

Stages of liberation

According to Jainism, the soul may gradually free itself by guiding it through the following stages (gunasthana):^[39]

#	14 Stages	Name
01	Wrong believer	mithya-drishti
02	One who has a slight taste of right belief	sasvadana-samyagdrsti
03	Mixed belief	misradrsti
04	True belief but no self-discipline	avirata-samyagdrsti
05	Partial self-control	desavirata
06	Complete self-discipline with some negligence	pramatta-samyata
07	Complete self-control without negligence	apramatta samyata
08	Gross occurrence of passions	nivrtti badra samparaya
09	Utilizing meditation to further minimize passions	annivrtti badara samparaya
10	Subtle occurrence of passions	suksama samparaya
11	Every passion is suppressed but still does not possess omniscience	upasana kasaya vitaraga chadmasta
12	Every passion is annihilated but still does not yet possess omniscience	ksina kasay vitaraga chadmasta
13	Omniscience with activity	sayogi kevalin
14	Omniscience without any activity	ayogi kevalin

^[40]

Godhood

Jainism does not believe in a creator or destroyer deity. It does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is one's own. Jains define godliness as the inherent quality of every soul. Jainism has been described as a transtheistic^[41] religion. Gods of Jains can be categorized into embodied gods also known as Tīrthankaras and Arihantas or ordinary Kevalin, and non-embodied formless gods who are called Siddhas. The following are three padas (posts) that any soul can attain-

• Tirthankara- 24 teachers and revivers of the Jain philosophy in each time cycle.
• Arihanta- Conqueror of inner passions and possessor of Kevala Jnana.
• Siddha- Souls who have attained moksha and dwell in Siddhashila.

Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the qualities of the God with the objective of destroying the karmas and achieving the Godhood.^[42]

History

Origins

The origins of Jainism are obscure.^[4][43] During the 5th or 6th century BC, Vardhamana Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Mahāvīra, however was not the founder of Jainism. Jains revere him as the last of the great tīrthankaras of this era and not the founder of the religion. He appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.^[44]

Parshvanatha, the traditional predecessor of Mahāvīra, is another Jain figure for whom there is reasonable historical evidence.^[45] He might have lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BC.^[46][47][48] Followers of Pārśva are mentioned in the canonical books; and a legend in the Uttarādhyayana sūtra relates a meeting between a disciple of Pārśva and a disciple of Mahāvīra which brought about the union of the old branch of the Jain ideology and the new one.^[44]

Artefacts and Statues from Indus Valley Civilization give some insight that Jainism might have been practiced 5000 years ago, even though the Jains believe their religion to be eternal.^[49]

Indus valley

A nude bust of red limestone in kayotsarga posture was found from Harrapan excavation.^[50] Statue of Tirthankaras are often represented in this posture.^[51] Other relics found from Harrapan excavations like seals depicting 'Kayotsarga' posture, idols in Padmasana and images with serpent-heads, and the artefacts of Bull, which is also the symbol of Rishabha represent Jain culture.^[52][53][54] Historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilization.^[55][56]

Universal history

According to Jain legends, sixty-three illustrious beings called Salakapurusas have appeared on earth.^[57] The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons.^[58] They comprise twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine baladevas, nine vāsudevas and nine prativāsudevas.^[57]

Tīrthaṅkaras are the human beings who help others to achieve liberation. They propagate and revitalise Jain faith and become role-models for those seeking spiritual guidance. They reorganise the fourfold order that consists of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen.^[59] Jain tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankara. The last two tirthankara, Pārśva and Mahāvīra, are historical figures whose existence is recorded.^[60]

A chakravarti is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.^[57] Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins. They are golden in complexion.^[61] One of the greatest chakravartin mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata. Traditions say that India came to be known as Bharatavarsha in his memory.^[62]

There are nine sets of baladeva, vāsudeva and prativāsudeva. Certain Digambara texts refer to them as balabhadra, narayana and pratinarayana, respectively. The origin of this list of brothers can be traced to the Jinacaritra by Bhadrabahu (c. 3rd–4th century BCE).^[63] Baladeva are non-violent heroes, vasudeva are violent heroes and prativāsudeva can be described as villains. According to the legends, the vasudeva ultimately kill the prativasudeva. Of the nine baladeva, eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. The vasudeva go to hell on account of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.^[64]

Royal patronage

The ancient city Pithunda, capital of Kalinga (modern Odisha), is described in the Jain text Uttaradhyana Sutra as an important centre at the time of Mahāvīra, and was frequented by merchants from Champa.^[65] Rishabha, the first tirthankara, was revered and worshiped in Pithunda and is known as the Kalinga Jina. Mahapadma Nanda (c. 450–362 BCE) conquered Kalinga and took a statue of Rishabha from Pithunda to his capital in Magadha. Jainism is said to have flourished under the Nanda Empire.^[66]

The Maurya Empire came to power after the downfall of the Nanda. The first Mauryan emperor, Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE), became a Jain in the latter part of his life. He was a disciple of Bhadrabahu, a Jain acharya who was responsible for propagation of Jainism in South India.^[67] The Mauryan king Ashoka was converted to Buddhism and his pro-Buddhist policy subjugated the Jains of Kalinga. Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE) is said to have converted to Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhasti. He is known to have erected many Jain temples. He ruled a place called Ujjain.^[68]

In the 1st century BCE, Emperor Kharavela of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga conquered Magadha. He retrieved Rishabha's statue and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital Shishupalgadh. Kharavela^[69] was responsible for the propagation of Jainism across the Indian subcontinent.

Xuanzang (629–645 CE), a Chinese traveller, notes that there were numerous Jains present in Kalinga during his time.^[70] The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar, Odisha are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa.^[71]

King Vanaraja (c. 720–780 CE) of the Chawda dynasty in northern Gujarat was raised by a Jain monk Silunga Suri. He supported Jainism during his rule. The king of kannauj Ama (c. 8th century CE) was converted to Jainism by Bappabhatti, a disciple of famous Jain monk Siddhasena Divakara.^[72] Bappabhatti also converted Vakpati, the friend of Ama who authored a famous prakrit epic named Gaudavaho.^[73]

Decline

Once a major religion, Jainism declined due to a number of factors, including proselytising by other religious groups, persecution, withdrawal of royal patronage, sectarian fragmentation and the absence of central leadership.^[74] Since the time of Mahavira, Jainism faced rivalry with Buddhism and the various Hindu sects.^[75] The Jains suffered isolated violent persecutions by these groups, but the main factor responsible for the decline of their religion was the success of Hindu reformist movements.^[76] Around the 7th century, Shaivism saw considerable growth at the expense of Jainism due to the efforts of the Shaivite poets like Sambandar and Appar. Around the 8th century CE, the Hindu philosophers Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and Adi Shankara tried to restore the orthodox Vedic religion.

Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth as well as decline of Jainism.^[74] The Pallava king Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism under the influence of Appar.^[77] His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and also expresses contempt towards Jain ascetics.^[78] Sambandar converted the contemporary Pandya king back to Shaivism. During the 11th century Brahmana Basava, a minister to the Jain king Bijjala, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use.^[79] The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a follower of the Vaishnava sect under the influence of Ramanuja, after which Vaishnavism grew rapidly in the present-day Karnataka.^[80] As the Hindu sects grew, the Jains compromised by following Hindu rituals and customs and invoking Hindu deities in Jain literature.^[79]

There are several legends about the mass massacre of Jains in the ancient times. The Buddhist king Ashoka (304-232 BCE) is said to have ordered killings of 18,000 Jains or Ajivikas after someone drew a picture of Buddha bowing at the feet of Mahavira.^[81][82] The Shaivite king Koon Pandiyan, who briefly converted to Jainism, is said to have ordered a massacre of 8,000 Jains after his re-conversion to Shaivism. However, these legends are not found in the Jain texts, and appear to be fabricated propaganda by Buddhists and Shaivites.^[83][84] Such stories of destruction of one sect by another sect were common at the time, and were used as a way to prove the superiority of one sect over the other. There are stories about a Jain king of Kanchi persecuting the Buddhists in a similar way.^[85] Another such legend about Vishnuvardhana ordering the Jains to be crushed in an oil mill doesn't appear to be historically true.^[86]

The decline of Jainism continued after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori (1175) and Ala-ud-din Muhammed Shah Khilji (1298) further oppressed the Jain community.^[87] They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned the Jain books and killed Jains. Some conversions were peaceful, however; Pir Mahabir Khamdayat (c. 13th century CE) is well known for his peaceful propagation of Islam.^[87][88] The Jains also enjoyed amicable relations with the rulers of the tributary Hindu kingdoms during this period; however, their number and influence had diminished significantly due to their rivalry with the Shaivite and the Vaisnavite sects.^[79]

For long periods of time, Jainism was widely adopted in the Indian subcontinent. The religion has been in decline since the 8th century AD due to the growth of, and oppression by other religions.^[75]

Demographics

The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With 5 million followers,^[89] Jainism is relatively small compared to major world religions. Jains live throughout India, with the largest populations concentrated in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu also have significant Jain populations.^[90] Outside India, large Jain communities can be found in the United States and Europe. Several Jain temples have been built in both of these places. Smaller Jain communities also exist in Kenya and Canada.

Jains developed a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on Indian culture. They have contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh.

Cosmology

Jain beliefs postulate that the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is independent and self-sufficient, and does not require any superior power to govern it. Elaborate description of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical universe, and its constituents, is provided in the canonical Jain texts, in commentaries and in the writings of the Jain philosopher-monks. The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe and developed detailed hypotheses concerning various aspects of astronomy and cosmology.^[91]

According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds, called respectively urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka.^[92] It is made up of six constituents:^[93] Jīva, the living entity; Pudgala, matter; Dharma tattva, the substance responsible for motion; Adharma tattva, the substance responsible for rest; Akāśa, space; and Kāla, time.^[93]

Wheel of time

According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, called kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. It is divided into halves, called utsarpiṇī and avasarpiṇī.^[94] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity, where happiness increases, while avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality.^[95]

1. Suṣama-suṣamā (read as Sukhma-sukhma), first ara of Avsarpini- people lived for three palyopama years. During this ara people were on average six miles tall. They took their food on every fourth day; they were very tall and devoid of anger, pride, deceit, greed and other sinful acts.
2. Suṣamā (read as Sukhma), second ara- people lived for two palyopama years. During this ara people were on average 4 miles tall. They took their food at an interval of three days. The land and water became less sweet and fruitful than they were during the first ara.
3. Suṣama-duḥṣamā (read as Sukhma-dukhma), third ara- people were on average 2 miles tall. They took their food on every second day. The earth and water as well as height and strength of the body went on decreasing and they became less than they were during the second ara. The first Tirthankara, Rishabha was born at the end of this ara. He taught the people the skills of farming, commerce, defence, politics and arts(intotal 72 arts for men and 64 arts for women) and organised the people in societies. That is why he is known as the father of human civilization.
4. Duḥṣama-suṣamā (read as Dukhma-sukhma), fourth ara- age of religion, where the renunciation, austerities and liberation was possible. The 63 Śalākāpuruṣas, or the illustrious persons who promote the Jain religion, regularly appear in this ara. This ara came to an end 3 years and 8 months after the moksha of last tirthankara Mahavira.
5. Duḥṣama (read as Dukhma), Current Ara- it is an age of sorrow and misery. The maximum age a person can live to in this ara is not more than 200 years. The average height of people in this ara is six feet tall. No liberation is possible, although people practice religion in lax and diluted form. At the end of this ara, even the Jain religion will disappear, only to appear again with the advent of 1st Tirthankara in the next cycle.
6. Duḥṣama - duḥṣama (read as Dukhma-dukhma), sixth ara- age of intense misery and sorrow, making it impossible to practice religion in any form. The age, height and strength of the human beings will decrease to a great extent. In this era people will live for no more than 16–20 years.

This trend will start reversing at the onset of utsarpiṇī kāl.

Jainism views animals and life itself in an utterly different light, reflecting an indigenous Asian understanding that yields a different definition of the soul, the human person, the structure of the cosmos, and ethics.^[96]

Schools and branches

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Digambara monks do not wear clothes because they believe these, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things—and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. This practice restricts full monastic life (and therefore mokṣa) to males, as Digambaras do not permit women to be nude; female renunciates wear white and are referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara monastics, on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in the scriptures that condemns the wearing of clothes. Women are accorded full status as renunciates and are often called sadhvi, the feminine of sadhu, a term often used for male monastics. Śvētāmbara believe women may attain liberation and that the tirthankara Māllīnātha was female.^[97]

Even though the Śvētāmbara allowed women the status of renunciate the nuns were still under the control of the monks. In general women in Indic society were governed by a triad of guardian males: father, husband, and son. The honor of the family and even the entire community seemed to rest on their women and whether or not they conformed to societal expectations placed on them. Jain nuns also had a triad to govern them: the male teacher (āyariya), the male preceptor (uvajjhāya) or head of the monastic group (gani), and the female supervisor (pavatinnî ganinî). The trio of guardians for the nuns were needed since women were thought to be most vulnerable to attack or seduction and could easily be swayed to corruptibility. The integrity of the monastic community rested on the nuns behaving accordingly and the responsibility for this belonged to the monks.^[98]

The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century CE).^[99] Digambaras believe that Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvētāmbara believe Mahāvīra married a woman who bore him a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahāvīra's mother.^[100]

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE). Tirthankara, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as the Ardhaphalaka ("half-clothed") mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.^[101]

Śvētāmbara sub-sects include Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi, and Murtipujaka. The Sthanakvasi and Terapanthi are aniconic. Śvētāmbara follow the twelve Jain Agamas. Digambara sub-sects include Bisapanthi, Kanjipanthi, Taranapanthi and Terapanthi.^[102] In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Saman Suttam.^[103]

Timeline of various denominations in Jainism

Jain texts

Agamas

The tradition talks about a body of scriptures preached by all the tirthankaras of Jainism. These scriptures were contained in fourteen parts and were known as the purvas. These were memorised and passed on through the ages, but were vulnerable and were lost because of famine that caused the death of several saints within a thousand years of Mahāvīra's death.^[104]

The Jain Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahāvīra's teachings. These comprise forty-six works: twelve angās, twelve upanga āgamas, six chedasūtras, four mūlasūtras, ten prakīrnaka sūtras and two cūlikasūtras.^[105]

There are two major denominations of Jain monks and nuns, the Śvētāmbara ("white-clad", who wear white garments) and Digambara, or "Sky Clad", who, as a further austerity, eschew clothing altogether. The Digambara sect of Jainism maintains that these agamas were also lost during the same famine. In the absence of authentic scriptures, Digambaras use about twenty-five scriptures written for their religious practice by great Acharyas. These include two main texts, four Pratham-Anuyog, three charn-anuyoga, four karan-anuyoga and twelve dravya-anuyoga.^[106]

Literature

Jains flourished in Tamil Nadu at least as early as the Sangam period. Tamil Jain tradition places their origins are much earlier. The Ramayana mentions that Rama paid homage to Jaina monks living in South India on his way to Sri Lanka.^[107] Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century BCE), Tolkāppiyam, was a Jain.^[108]

Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar is considered by many to be the work of a Jain by scholars like V. Kalyanasundarnar, Vaiyapuri Pillai,^[109] Swaminatha Iyer,^[110] P.S. Sundaram.^[111] It emphatically supports vegetarianism (Chapter 26) and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than thousand offerings in fire( verse (259).

Nālaṭiyār^[112] was composed by Jain monks from South India during 100-500 CE. It is divided into three sections, the first section focusing on the importance of virtuous life, second section on the governance and management of wealth, and the third smaller section on the pleasures.

Silappatikaram, the earliest surviving epic in Tamil literature, was written by a Jain (Samaṇa), Ilango Adigal. This epic is a major work in Tamil literature, describing the historical events of its time and also of then-prevailing religions, Jainism, Buddhism and Shaivism. The main characters of this work, Kannagi and Kovalan, who have a divine status among Tamils, were Jains.

According to George L. Hart, who holds the endowed Chair in Tamil Studies by University of California, Berkeley, has written that the legend of the Tamil Sangams or "literary assemblies: was based on the Jain sangham at Madurai:

There was a permanent Jaina assembly called a Sangha established about 604 A.D. in Madurai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the Sangam legend.^[113]

Jain scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period, such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār.^[112] In the beginning of the mediaeval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada language authors were predominantly of the Jain and Lingayati faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jains wrote about the tirthankara and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets. Court poet to the Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, he is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya.^[114]

Jains encourage their monastics to do research and obtain higher education. Monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. Jains, according to the 2001 census, have the highest degree of literacy of any religious community in India (94.1 per cent),^[89] and their manuscript libraries are the oldest in the country.^[115] Jain libraries, including those at Patan and Jaisalmer, have a large number of well preserved manuscripts.^[115][116]

Art and architecture

Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jains mainly depict tirthankara or other important people in a seated or standing meditative posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown with them.^[117] Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation bear similarity to Jain images, nude and in a meditative posture.^[117] The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum. It is approximately dated to the 3rd century BCE.^[117] Bronze images of Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE. A sandalwood sculpture of Mahāvīra was carved during his lifetime, according to tradition. Later the practice of making images of wood was abandoned, other materials being substituted.^[118]

Remnants of ancient Jain temples and cave temples can be found all around India. Notable among these are the Jain caves at Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa(Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh and Ellora in Maharashtra, and the Jain temples at Dilwara near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan is a good example of Jain architecture.^[119] Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.^[120] Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.^[121] In paintings, incidents of his life, like his marriage and Indra's marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.^[122] Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara.^[123]

There are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures in and around Madurai. It was in Madurai that Acharya Bhutapali wrote the Shatkhandagama. This is also the site where Jain ascetics of yesteryear wrote great epics and books on grammar in Tamil.^[124]

The Sittanavasal cave temple is regarded as one of the finest examples of Jain art. It is the oldest and most famous Jain centre in the region. It possesses both an early Jain cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings of par excellence comparable to Ajantha paintings; the steep hill contains an isolated but spacious cavern. Locally, this cavern is known as Eladipattam, a name that is derived from the seven holes cut into the rock that serve as steps leading to the shelter. Within the cave there are seventeen stone beds aligned into rows, and each of these has a raised portion that could have served as a pillow-loft. The largest stone bed has a distinct Tamil- Bramhi inscription assignable to the 2nd centuryB.C., and some inscriptions belonging to 8th centuryB.C. are also found on the nearby beds. The Sittannavasal cavern continued to be the "Holy Sramana Abode" until the seventh and eighth centuries. Inscriptions over the remaining stone beds name mendicants such as Tol kunrattu Kadavulan, Tirunilan, Tiruppuranan, Tittaicharanan, Sri Purrnacandran, Thiruchatthan, Ilangowthaman, sri Ulagathithan and Nityakaran Pattakali as monks.^[125]

The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.^[126]

A monolithic, 18 m statue of Bahubali referred to as "Gommateshvara", built by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state. This statue was voted by Indians the first of the Times of India's list of seven wonders of India.^[127]

A large number of ayagapata, votive tablets for offerings and the worship of tirthankara, were found at Mathura.^[128]

Reception

Negative

Like all religions, Jainism is criticized and praised for some of its practices and beliefs. The Catholic Encyclopedia criticized the religion for maintaining veterinary hospitals for rats, for tolerating suicide, and for prioritizing the life of animals even if it means more suffering for humans.^[129]

A holy fast to death in Jainism called sallekhana is a particular area of controversy. When a person feels that all his or her duties have been fulfilled, he or she may decide to gradually cease eating and drinking. This form of death (santhara) has been the center of controversy with some petitioning to make it illegal. Many Jains, on the other hand, see santhara as spiritual detachment requiring a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity and a declaration that a person is finished with this world and has chosen to leave.^[130] Jains believe this allows one to achieve death with dignity and dispassion along with a great reduction of negative karma.^[131]

Positive

Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism. Jain principles that he adopted in his life were asceticism compassion for all forms of life, the importance of vows for self-discipline, vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance among people of different creeds.^[132]

Swami Vivekananda appreciated the role of Jainism in the development of Indian religious philosophy. In his words, he asks: "What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths?"^[133]

See also

Notes

References

Jainism topics Tirthankara Rishabha Ajitanatha Sambhavanatha Abhinandananatha Sumatinatha Padmaprabha Suparshvanatha Chandraprabha Pushpadanta Shitalanatha Shreyanasanatha Vasupujya Vimalanatha Anantanatha Dharmanatha Shantinatha Kunthunatha Aranatha Māllīnātha Munisuvrata Naminatha Neminatha Pārśva Mahavira Simandhar Swami Philosophy Ahimsa nonviolence Anekāntavāda Aparigraha Syādvāda Jain cosmology Ātman Naraka Karma Types Causes Dharma Gunasthana Kevala Jñāna Mokṣa Dravya Navatattva Death Saṃsāra Satya Brahmacharya Branches Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka Kharatara Gaccha Tapa Gaccha Tristutik Gaccha Sthānakavāsī Svetambar Terapanth Shrimad Rajchandra Digambara Mula Sangh Balatkara Gana Kashtha Sangh Taran Panth Bispanthi Digambar Terapanth Kanji Swami Yapaniya Practices Mahavrata Sallekhana Meditation Namokar mantra Monasticism Chaturmas Vegetarianism Fasting Rituals and festivals Upadhan Tapasya Pratikramana Kshamavani forgiveness Scriptures Jain Agamas Jain scriptures Tattvartha Sutra Kalpa Sūtra Jain literature Major figures Ancient Ganadhara Indrabhuti Gautama Sudharmaswami Bhadrabahu Sthulabhadra Umaswati Kundakunda Siddhasena Divakara Medieval Haribhadra Hemachandra Yasovijaya Pandit Todarmal Modern Kanji Swami Shrimad Rajchandra Vijayanandsuri Vallabhsuri Jambuvijaya Vidyasagar Tulsi Mahāprajña Rajendrasuri Buddhisagarsuri Scholars Sukhlal Sanghvi Virchand Gandhi Jinendra Varni Nathuram Premi Padmanabh Jaini Chandabai Hampa Nagarajaiah Hermann Jacobi Colette Caillat Paul Dundas Nalini Balbir Bal Patil Claudia Pastorino Satish Kumar Robert J. Zydenbos Ramjee Singh Jinvijay Symbols Jain flag Siddhachakra Ashtamangala Swastika Srivatsa Nandavarta Kalasha Om Ashoka tree Auspicious dreams Jainism and: Buddhism Islam Sikhism Non-creationism Hinduism By country India North Karnataka Maharashtra Mumbai Rajasthan Delhi Tamil Canada Europe United States Japan Singapore Hong Kong Pakistan Belgium Africa Southeast Asia Australia Related History of Jainism timeline List of Jains Index of Jainism-related articles Pañca-Parameṣṭhi Arihant Pratima Acharya Salakapurusa Kshullak Digambar Jain Mahasabha Tirtha Samavasarana Jain calendar Samvatsari Portal Commons Wikiquote

Jain Scriptures Fourteen Purvas (The Prior Knowledge - considered totally lost) Śvētāmbara Canonical Texts Angāgama Ācāranga sūtra Sūtrakrtanga Sthānānga Samavāyānga Sūtra Vyākhyāprajñapti Jnātrdhārmakathāh Upāsakadaśāh Antakrddaaśāh Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh Praśnavyākaranani Vipākaśruta Drstivāda (now extinct) Upanga āgamas Aupapātika Rājapraśnīya Jīvājīvābhigama Prajñāpana Sūryaprajñapti Jambūdvīpaprajñapti Candraprajñapti Nirayārvalī Kalpāvatamsikāh Puspikāh Puspacūlikāh Vrasnidaśāh Chedasūtra Ācāradaśāh Brhatkalpa Vyavahāra Niśītha Mahāniśītha Jītakalpa Mūlasūtra Daśavaikālika Uttarādhyayana Āvaśyaka Pindaniryukyti Prakīrnaka sūtra Catuhśarana Āturapratyākhyanā Bhaktaparijñā Samstāraka Tandulavaicarika Candravedhyāka Devendrastava Ganividyā Mahāpratyākhyanā Vīrastava Cūlikasūtra Nandī-sūtra Anuyogadvāra-sūtra Digambara Texts Āgamas Satkhandāgama Kasāyaprabhrta Pratham -ānuyoga Padmapurāna Harivamsapurāna Ādi purāṇa Mahāpurāna Carnānuyoga Mulācāra Trivarnācāra Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra Ganitānuyoga Sūryaprajñapti Candraprajñapt Jayadhavalātikā Gommatasāra Dravyānuyoga Niyamasāra Pancastikayasāra Pravacanasāra Samayasāra Tattvārthasūtra (Note1) Āptamīmamsa Commentary Commentary on Tattvarthasūtra and Aptmimamsa Tattvārthasūtra is accepted by both Digambaras and Śvetāmbara as their texts although Śvetāmbaras do not include it under canonical texts.

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