Hydrogen ion cluster

A hydrogen molecular ion cluster or hydrogen cluster ion is a positively charged cluster of hydrogen molecules. The hydrogen molecular ion (H2+) and trihydrogen ion (H3+) are well defined molecular species. However hydrogen also forms singly charged clusters (Hn+) with n up to 120.

Experiments

Hydrogen ion clusters can be formed in liquid helium or with lesser cluster size in pure hydrogen. H6+ is far more common than higher even numbered clusters.[1] H6+ is stable in solid hydrogen. The positive charge is balanced by a solvated electron. It is formed when ionizing radiation impinges on solid hydrogen, and so is formed in radioactive solid tritium. In natural hydrogen treated with radiation, the positive charge transfers to HD molecules, in preference to H2, with the ultimate most stable arrangement being HD(HD)+HD.[2] H6+ can migrate though solid hydrogen by linking a hydrogen molecule at one end and losing it at the other: H2 + H6+ → H6+ + H2. This migration stops once an HD molecule is added resulting in a lower energy level.[3] HD or D2 is added in preference over H2.[4]

Clampitt and Gowland found clusters with an odd number of hydrogen atoms H3+2n+[5] and later showed that H15+ was relatively stable. H3+ formed the core of this cluster with six H2 molecules surrounding it.[6] Hiroka studied the stability of the odd numbered clusters in gas up to H21+.[7] Bae determined that H15+ was especially stable amongst the odd numbered clusters.[8]

Kirchner discovered even numbered atomic clusters in gas at lower concentrations than the odd numbered atom clusters. H6+ was twenty times less abundant than H5+. H4+ H8+ and H10+ were detected at lesser amounts than H6+.[9] Kurosaki and Takayanagi showed that H6+ is much more stable than other even clusters and showed antiprismatic symmetry of order 4 (D2d molecular symmetry).[10] This turnstyle structured molecule was computationally found to be more energetically stable than a ring of five hydrogen atoms around a proton.[11]

Negative hydrogen clusters have not been found to exist. H3− is theoretically unstable, but D3− in theory is bound at 0.003 eV.[8]

Decay

H6+ in the free gas state decays by giving off H atoms and H2 molecules. Different energies of decay occur with levels averaging at 0.038 eV and peaking at 0.14 eV.[9]

Formation

Hydrogen molecular ion clusters can be formed through different kinds of ionizing radiation. High energy electrons capable of ionizing the material can perform this task. When hydrogen dissolved in liquid helium is irradiated with electrons their energy must be sufficient to ionize helium to produce significant hydrogen clusters. Irradiation of solid hydrogen by gamma rays or X-rays also produces H6+.[12]

Positive ion clusters are also formed when compressed hydrogen expands though a nozzle.[13]

Kirchner's theory for the formation of even numbered clusters was that neutral H3 molecules reacted the H3+ ion (or other odd clusters) to make H6+.[9]

Properties

Solvation of H6+ in solid hydrogen had little effect on its spectrum.[10]

Use

SRI International studied solid ionic hydrogen fuel. They believed that a solid containing H3+ and H− ions could be manufactured. If it could be made it would have a higher energy than other rocket fuels with only 2% concentration of ions. However they could not contain the H− in a stable way, but determined that other negative ions would do as well.[8] This theoretical impulse exceeds that of solid and liquid fuel rockets.[8] SRI developed a cluster ion gun that could make positive and negative ion clusters at a current of 500 pA.[8]

Nuclear fusion using ion clusters can impact far more atoms than single ions in one hit. This concept is called cluster Ion fusion (CIF). Lithium deuteride (LiD) is a potential starter material for generating the ions.[8]

References

  1. ↑ Sattler, Klaus D. (2010). "Electron Impact Ionization of Hydrogen Clusters Embedded in Helium". Clusters and Fullerenes. Handbook of Nanophysics. CRC Press. pp. 20–15–20–17. ISBN 1-4200-7554-3.
  2. ↑ Ching Yeh Lin, Andrew T.B. Gilbert,Mark A. Walter (6 May 2011). "Interstellar Solid Hydrogen". arXiv:1105.1861 [astro-ph.GA].
  3. ↑ Takayuki Kumada, Yuta Shimizu, Takahiro Ushida and Jun Kumagai (October–December 2008). "H atom, e−, and H6+ ions produced in irradiated solid hydrogens: An electron spin resonance study". Radiation Physics and Chemistry (Elsevier) 77 (10–12): 1318–1322. Bibcode:2008RaPC...77.1318K. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2008.05.026.
  4. ↑ J. Kumagai, H. Inagaki, S. Kariya, T. Ushida, Y. Shimizu,T. Kumada (14 July 2007). "Electron spin resonance study on H6+, H5D+, H4D2+, and H2D4+ in solid parahydrogen". J Chem Phys 127 (2): 024505. Bibcode:2007JChPh.127b4505K. doi:10.1063/1.2748046. PMID 17640135.
  5. ↑ R. Clampitt,L. Gowland; Gowland, L. (August 1969). "Clustering of Cold Hydrogen Gas on Protons". Nature 223 (5208): 815–816. Bibcode:1969Natur.223..815C. doi:10.1038/223815a0.
  6. ↑ R. Clampitt, D. K. Jefferies (11 April 1970). "Ion Clusters". Nature 226 (5241): 141–142. Bibcode:1970Natur.226..141C. doi:10.1038/226141a0. PMID 16057136.
  7. ↑ Hiroka, K. (1987). "A determination of the stabilities of H3+(H2)n with n=1−9 from measurements of the gas-phase ion equilibria H3+(H2)n−1+H2=H3+(H2)n". The Journal of chemical physics (American Institute of Physics) 87 (7): 4048–4055. Bibcode:1987JChPh..87.4048H. doi:10.1063/1.452909. ISSN 0021-9606.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Bae, Young K.; Phillip C. Cosby (September 1990). "Ionic Solid Hydrogen Fuel: Production and Properties of Hydrogen Ion and Energetic Neutral Clusters" (PDF). Astronautics Laboratory. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Kirchner, Nicholas J.; Michael T. Bowers (1987). "An experimental study of the formation and reactivity of ionic hydrogen clusters: The first observation and characterization of the even clusters H4+, H6+, H8+, and H10+". Journal of Chemical Physics 86 (3): 1301–1310. Bibcode:1987JChPh..86.1301K. doi:10.1063/1.452219.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Kurosaki, Yuzuru; Toshiyuki. Takayanagi (21 August 1998). "A direct isomerization path for the H6+ cluster. An ab initio molecular orbital study". Chemical Physics Letters (Elsevier Science B.V.) 293 (1–2): 59–64. Bibcode:1998CPL...293...59K. doi:10.1016/S0009-2614(98)00721-0.
  11. ↑ Qiang Hao, Andrew C. Simmonett, Yukio Yamaguchi, Fang De-Cai, Henry F. Schaeffer (23 October 2009). "Structures and Energetics of H6+ Clusters". The journal of physical chemistry. A (Washington DC: American Chemical Society) 113 (48): 13608–13620. Bibcode:2009JPCA..11313608H. doi:10.1021/jp905928u. ISSN 1089-5639. PMID 19852448.
  12. ↑ Takayuki Kumada, Hiroto Tachikawa, Toshiyuki Takayanagi (2005). "H6+ in irradiated solid para-hydrogen and its decay dynamics: reinvestigation of quartet electron paramagnetic resonance lines assigned to H2−". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 7 (5): 776–784. Bibcode:2005PCCP....7..776K. doi:10.1039/b415179h. ISSN 1463-9076. PMID 19791361.
  13. ↑ Ekinci, Y; E. L. Knuth; J. P. Toennies (5 October 2006). "A mass and time-of-flight spectroscopy study of the formation of clusters in free-jet expansions of normal D2". Journal of Chemical Physics 125 (13): 133409–133420. Bibcode:2006JChPh.125m3409E. doi:10.1063/1.2217942. PMID 17029483.