History of Chinese dance

Tang Dynasty figurines of female dancers. Dancing with sleeve movements is known from the Zhou Dynasty and earlier in China.
History of China
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2100 BC
Xia dynasty c. 2100 – c. 1600 BC
Shang dynasty c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou dynasty c. 1045 – 256 BC
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin dynasty 221–206 BC
Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD
  Western Han
  Xin dynasty
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Southern and Northern Dynasties
420–589
Sui dynasty 581–618
Tang dynasty 618–907
  (Wu Zhou interregnum 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–960		 Liao dynasty
907–1125
Song dynasty
960–1279
  Northern Song W. Xia
  Southern Song Jin
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Ming dynasty 1368–1644
Qing dynasty 1644–1911
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic
of China
1949–present		 Republic of
China on Taiwan
1949–present

Dance in China has a long recorded history. Some Chinese dances today, such as dancing with long sleeves, have been recorded at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1045–256 BC). The art reached a peak in the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) but declined later. In more recent times dance has enjoyed a resurgence and modern developments in Chinese dances are continuing apace.

Early history

In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period (before 2000BC) people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands.[1] The earliest character for "dance", , appears in the oracle bones and represents a dancer holding oxtails in each hand.[2] According to the Lüshi Chunqiu (compiled around 239 BCE): "In former times, the people of the Getian clan (葛天氏) would dance in pairs [or threes] with oxtails in hand, stamping their feet and singing eight stanzas."[3][4]

Primitive dance in ancient China was also associated with sorcery and shamanic ritual. An early shape of the Chinese character for sorcerer, wu (巫), represented dancing shamans or their sleeves;[5] wu therefore described someone who danced as a mean of communication between gods and men,[6] There are many ancient records of dancing hamans and sorcerers such as rain dance at times of drought. The rain dance (舞雩, Wǔ yú) platform is mentioned in many ancient texts including the Analects of Confucius.

Ancient Chinese texts such the Rites of Zhou (2nd century BCE) record dances of the early period. The most important of the Zhou Dynasty dances are the six dances termed the "Great Dances" which were performed to venerate Heaven, Earth, gods, ancestors or legendary figures. These six dances were said to have originated from the time of six historical or legendary figures:[3][7][8]

Dashao (大韶) was a famous dance said to date from the time of Shun (the Neolithic epoch), the dancers may have dressed up as birds and beasts. One of the earliest documents, Shujing, mentioned the ritual of "beating on the stones as all the wild animals dance".[9][10]

Daxia was a dance performed in praise of Yu the Great of the Xia Dynasty, famous for his work on flood control. In this dance, 64 performers danced bare-chested wearing fur caps and white skirts. The movements of the dance may imitate the manual labour performed during flood control.[11]

Dawu was an important dance in six parts describing the military exploits of King Wu of Zhou: it may involve martial elements such as the use of weapons. These formal dances were divided into two types, civil and military. In a Civil Dance (文舞), dancers held item such as feather banners in their hand, and Military Dance (武舞) involved brandishing of weapons.[12]

These six dances formed part of the system of court music and dance first established during the Western Zhou (1046 – 771 BCE) and known as Yayue.[13] Music and dance were considered integral parts of a whole.[14]

Another six formed what was called the "Small Dances", to be performed by younger members of the aristocracy in minor ceremonies and sacrifice rituals. These are:[15]

All the dances involved objects such as feather plumes, yak-tails or shield, except the Dance of the People which is focused on sleeve movements.[16]

Aside from the formal and ritual dances, popular and folk dances are also mentioned in ancient texts. In the Book of Rites, it is recorded that Marquess Wen of Wei expressed concerns about falling asleep during the measured and stately court performances and preferred the popular new music and dances of Wey and Zheng, though his Confucian advisor condemned these as decadent and disorderly.[17][18]

During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, descriptions of professional dancing girls also appear in ancient texts. These may have been people from poorer family who visited and performed in the women's quarters in the palace or at houses of the nobles. Slaves had been kept as dancers since the Xia Dynasty.

Qin-Han period (221 BC – 220 CE)

Acrobats and dancers depicted in a pictorial brick from a tomb chamber in Chengdu dating to the Eastern Han Dynasty. The dancer held a long piece of silk on a rod in each hand.

Historical texts mention many dances in this period. In one story a sword dance is performed during an attempt to assassinate Liu Bang (who later founded the Han Dynasty) at the Hongmen Banquet.[19] This event was also said to form the basis of the "Gong Mo" Dance (公莫舞) - "Gong Mo", literally "Sir, Don't!", describes a blocking action by Xiang Bo during the sword dance to prevent the assassination.[20] The "Gong Mo" Dance was later known as the Scarf Dance (巾舞). In it a long scarf is held in both hands, similarly to today's Long Silk Dance. Liu Bang was also said to be fond the war dance of the Ba people called the Bayu dance (巴渝) or later under various names such as Zhaowu (昭武). Large-scale performances of this dance involved brandishing weapons to the accompaniment of drums and songs in the Ba language.[21]

During the Qin and Han period the imperial court established the yuefu (literally Music Bureau), which was responsible for collecting folk music and dance for performances at the court. A popular dance of the Han Dynasty was the Long Sleeve Dance and many images and sculptures of the period depict such dances, a tradition that of early date that is still performed today.[22] The sleeve may be long and narrow, long and wide or similar to the "water sleeves" (水袖, long flowing detachable silk sleeves extended at the wrist) used in modern Chinese opera. Historical texts also recorded dancers danced bending at the waist while moving their sleeves.

Other dances included the Drum Dance (鞞舞), Bell Dance (鐸舞), Sabre Dance, and mixed couple dance.[23]

During the Han Dynasty, a popular form of variety show called baixi (百戲, or "hundred shows") included various Chinese variety arts such as acrobatics, martial art, magic tricks, comic performances, music and dance.[24] Zhang Heng recorded various performances in his Lyric Essay on Western Capital (西京賦), describing dancers dressed as beasts, fish and dragons.[25]

Fu Yi's (傅毅) Lyric Essay on Dance describes the Seven Tray Dance (七盤舞, also called Tray Drum Dance 盤鼓舞), a fusion of acrobatics and dance in which the dancer leaps gracefully between trays and drums on the trays ever faster as the dance progresses.[26][27]

One famous Han Dynasty dancer is Zhao Feiyan, a great beauty who rose from a humble beginning to become an Empress. She was named Feiyan or "Flying Swallow" after her slender figure and lithe dance steps, so light that she appeared to be quivering like a flower in the hand.[28][29] Professional dancers such as Zhao Feiyan were of low social status and many entered the profession through poverty, although some achieved higher status by becoming concubines. Another dancer was Wang Wengxu (王翁須) who was forced to become a domestic singer-dancer but who later bore the future Emperor Xuan of Han.

Six Dynasties era (220 - 589 CE)

Figurines of dancers from the Northern Qi Dynasty.

From this period, between end of Han and the beginning of Sui, there were pronounced influences from Central Asia on Chinese music and dance. Musical instruments such as the pear-shaped pipa and dances such as the Lion Dance may have been introduced in this period via Central Asia.[30] The music and dance of Kucha became popular, as did that of Western Liang (in today's Gansu), which may be an assimilation of styles from Han and other non-Han people. Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, who was of Xianbei origin, married a Turkic princess who brought music and dances of Central Asia to China.[31]

This period saw civil wars as well as conflicts with the northern nomads (Wu Hu), resulting in the splintering of China into multiple states and dynasties established by Han and non-Han people. The Jin court was relocated to the south and many Han Chinese also migrated southwards due to pressure from the northern Hu tribes, and resulted in a fusion of the music and dance of the Central Plains with southern local traditions, producing a genre known as Qingshang (清商) music (later known simply as Qingyue 清樂).[32]

When the capital shifted to Jiankang (near modern Nanjing), music and dance from the Wu region in the lower Yangtze River became popular, such as the Qianxi Dance (前溪舞), Qianxi being a village where performers once gathered to learn music and dance, the Whisk Dance (拂舞), White Ramie Dance (白紵舞), the Cup Tray Dance (杯槃舞) and the Mingjun Dance (明君舞), which tells the story of Wang Zhaojun).[33]

Sui-Tang period (581 – 907 CE)

A Tang Dynasty dancer from a mural unearthed in Xi'an dancing with a shawl.

The Emperor Wen of Sui ended strife and division and unified China. The Sui Dynasty collected the music and dance of the various peoples under its rule as well as popular music from outside China into the "Seven Books of Music" (七部樂), describing the music and dance of the Western Liang, Korea, India, Bukhara (安國), Kucha, the Qingshang and the Wenkang (文康), a masked dance, later known as Libi (禮畢).

Later in the Sui Dynasty the music and dance of Shule and Samarkand (康國) were added to form the "Nine Books of Music", further expanded into ten during the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty, when Yanyue (燕樂, banquet music) and the music of Gaochang was added but Wenkang dropped.[34] The most popular of these were Qingshang, Western Liang and Kuchan music.[35]

These collections showed the diversity and cosmopolitan nature of the music and dance of the Tang Dynasty: only the Yanyue and Qingshang music originated with the Han Chinese.[36] Music and dance from India, Central Asia, South-East Asia (Pyu and Funan) and other states bordering Tang China such as Tuyuhun and Nanzhao were performed in the imperial capital Chang'an with performers and dancers in native costume.[35] The imperial court gathered the top dancing talent of the country to perform a lavish dance that incorporated elements of the dance of China, Korea, India, Persia and Central Asia into one colossal dance.[37]

Particularly popular were dances from Central Asia like the Sogdian Whirling Dance (胡旋舞) of Samarkand,[38] a dance involving rapid spinning that is similar to dances found amongst the Uyghur people today. The dance was also said to had been performed by An Lushan and the consort of Emperor Xuanzong, Yang Guifei.[39]

Others include the Mulberry Branch Dance (柘枝舞) from Tashkent and the Barbarian Leap Dance (胡騰舞), a male solo dance, also described as the dance of a white-skinned people with high-bridged nose.[40][41][42]

Dancer in mural from Mogao Caves performing perhaps the Whirling Dance

The Tang Dynasty was a golden age of music and dance. Institutions were set up to oversee the training and performances of music and dances in the imperial court such as the Great Music Bureau (太樂署), responsible for yayue and yanyue, and the Drums and Pipes Bureau (鼓吹署) responsible for ceremonial music.[35] Emperor Gaozu set up the Royal Academy, while Emperor Xuanzong established the Pear Garden Academy for the training of musicians, dancers and actors. The number of music and dance performers in the imperial court reached tens of thousand, most specialising in yanyue. All were under the administration of the Drums and Pipes Bureau and an umbrella organization called the Taichang Temple (太常寺).[43]

Musical performances in the Tang court were of two types; seated performances (坐部伎) and standing performances (立部伎).[44] Seated performances were conducted in smaller halls with limited number of dancers, and emphasised refinedartistry. Standing performances involved numerous dancers,and were usually performed in courtyards or squares intended for grand presentations.

Standing performance pieces included The Seven Virtues Dance (七德舞), originally called "The Prince of Qin Breaks Through The Ranks" (秦王破陣樂), celebrating the military exploits of Emperor Taizong (the Prince of Qin of the title).[45] It was performed with 120 dancers in gold-decorated armour with spears, yet could also be performed at a seated performance by four dancers in red silk robes.

Two other major dances of the Tang Dynasty were the Blessed Goodness Dance (慶善舞, also called Nine Merits Dance, 九功舞) and The Supreme Original Dance (上元舞).[46]

Details from the Southern Tang/Song Dynasty painting "Night Revels of Han Xizai" by Gu Hongzhong, depicting the dancer Wang Wushan (王屋山) performing the Green Waist Dance from the Tang Dynasty, which was also called Liuyao (六么) as it is similar in pronunciation to Green Waist (Luyao).

Small-scale dances, performed during banquets and other occasions, may be divided into two categories: energetic dances (健舞), which are vigorous and athletic, and soft dances (軟舞), which are gentle and graceful. Energetic dances included those from Central Asia, such as Whirling Dance, Mulberry Branch Dance and the Barbarian Leap Dance, as well as the Sword Dance, famously performed by Lady Gongsun (公孫大娘),[47] and reputed to have inspired the cursive calligraphy of Zhang Xu.[48] Soft Dances included the Green Waist Dance (綠腰), a female solo dance.

Large scale performances, with singers, dancers and musicians, for banquets at the Tang court were called Grand Compositions (大曲). These developed from the Xianghe Grand Compositions (相和大曲) of the Han Dynasty but became highly elaborate during the Tang Dynasty.[49] A particularly renowned example is the Rainbow Skirt Feathered Dress Dance (霓裳羽衣舞) choreographed by Yang Guifei and set to a tune said to have been composed by the Emperor himself. This dance, originally called the Brahmin (婆羅門) dance, may have been a Central Asian or Indian dance brought to the Tang court by way of Kucha.[50] This stopped being performed after the An Lushan Rebellion diminished the power and wealth of the state, and court music and dance was greatly reduced.

Some pieces of music and dance of the Tang Dynasty that had disappeared from China survive in Japan. An example is the masked dance The King of Lanling (蘭陵王).

In the Sui-Tang period song-and-dance drama from the earlier dynasties were also revived, such as the Big Face (大面) or "mask", also called "The King of Lanling" (蘭陵王), a masked dance from the Northern Qi Dynasty honouring Gao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask.[51][52] The Botou (撥頭, meaning using the hand to sweep hair aside), from Central Asia, is another masked dance. It tells of a grieving son seeking the tiger that killed his father.[53] "The Dancing Singing Woman" (踏謡娘) relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, initially performed by a man dressed as a woman.[52][54] The stories told in these song-and-dance dramas are simple but they are believed to be the precursors to Chinese opera and theatre.[52][55]

Many of these dances are described in Tang Dynasty poetry: Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen wrote of the Whirling Dance in their poems "The Whirling Hu Girl" (胡旋女), Du Fu of the sword dance.[47][56] The White Ramie Dance and others are also mentioned. The Tang poets also wrote Ci verses set to the tunes for dances such as the "Boddhisattva Barbarian" (菩薩蠻), a processional dance (隊舞) that may have several hundred performers.[57]

A great number of dances were recorded in the Tang Dynasty but most were lost after its collapse,[58] yet substantial records remain, including over 60 Grand Compositions.[59] Some music and dances were transmitted to Japan and retained as part of gagaku.

Five Dynasties to Qing Dynasty (907 – 1911 CE)

Mural from a Song Dynasty tomb in Henan, depicting a male dancer accompanied by musicians.

A period of fragmentation, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, followed the fall of Tang Dynasty until China was unified under the Song Dynasty. During the Song Dynasty, footbinding became prevalent in China during the Song Dynasty, and the practice may have started during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period among female dancers. One story concerned the favorite concubine of Emperor Li Yu who bound her feet into the shape of the crescent moon and performed a lotus dance on the point of her feet.[60] Later tighter binding however restricted female movement which, together with social restrictions placed on women as well as the banning of female performers in Beijing theatre by Emperor Qianlong during the Qing Dynasty, may have eventually led to the virtual elimination of female dancers.[61][62] Male then replaced female dance part, nevertheless there were still female dance troupes with bound feet formed in the 20th century as novelty acts.[63]

Details of the Song Dynasty painting One Hundred Children Playing in the Spring" (百子嬉春圖) by Su Hanchen (蘇漢臣) showing children performing the lion dance.

The popular centres of entertainment in the Song capital Bianliang (now Kaifeng) and later at Lin'an (now Hangzhou) were the wazi (瓦子, meaning "tiles") or wasi (瓦肆, tile market), where theatres in the form of fenced-off rings called goulan (勾欄) may be found. Various forms of entertainment including dances were performed in these centres. Dances performed may be generally referred to as Dance Wheeling (舞旋), a reference to their spinning movement, and other foreign dances are called Dance of the Foreign Music (舞番樂). Some dances from the Tang Dynasty developed into a Team Dance with a leading dancer called the Flower Center, a presenter called Bamboo Pole, with background dancers and musicians. These dances incorporated singing as well as monologue and dialogue.[64] Some of the familiar dances of present day China were mentioned in the Song Dynasty, examples are the Flower Drum (花鼓); Playing the Big Head (耍大頭), which is the Big-headed Monk (大頭和尚) of later eras where the performer wears a large head mask; the Dry Boat (旱船) Dance which is known from previous dynasties where a boy may dress up as a girl wearing a boat-like structure made of cloth so that he appeared to sit in a boat, and accompanied by a boatman holding an oar.[65][66] Some of these dances may be performed by folk dance troupes called shehuo (社火, named after a spring festival) which performed during festivals, and each village or city may have its own dance troupe. Other dances include Catching Butterflies (撲蝴蝶), Bamboo Horse (竹馬), the Bao Lao Dance (舞鮑老, Bao Lao was a comic character in a puppet show) and Village Music (村田樂) which developed into the yangge dance during the Qing Dynasty.[67]

Dance as part of the Peking Opera in a performance of "Heavenly Lady Scatters Flowers" (天女散花).

In the wazi of the Song Dynasty, various theatrical forms flourished and Chinese opera began to take shape. More elaborate narrative became incorporated into dances, for example the sword dance would depict the event of the Hongmen Feast, followed by depiction of the responses of Zhang Xu and Du Fu after watching the famed sword dance of Lady Gongsun in the Tang Dynasty. Stories are told, sometimes with song in these dance performances. Dances such as "Dance Judgement" (舞判, also called the Dance of Zhong Kui, 跳鐘馗) became opera pieces in the Ming Dynasty, and dances of the Song Dynasty such as Flapping the Flag (撲旗子) later became part of Chinese opera. In the north Chinese theatre developed in the form of the zaju variety show, and in the south, the nanxi opera.

Chinese opera became very popular by the Yuan Dynasty, and in the following dynasties, a variety of genres such as the kunqu and Peking opera developed in various regions of China. Dances became absorbed into opera, and as Chinese opera became increasing popular, there was also a corresponding decline in dance as an individual separate art form. Pure dance then became increasingly rare outside of folk traditions and mass performances during festivals. Nevertheless small-scale folk song-and-dance shows were popular in the Qing Dynasty, for example the Flower Drum, Flower Lantern (花燈) and Picking Tea (採茶) song and dance shows.

Modern era

In the early 20th century, there was a call to "make use of old forms" of literature and art as a means of connecting with the masses.[68] Traditional Chinese dance forms were revised and propagated. In 1943, the Chinese Communist Party launched the new yangge movement where the yangge dance was adopted as a means of rallying village support. The new dance is a simplified version of the old dance with socialist elements such as the leader of the holding a sickle instead of umbrella, and it is also known as "struggle yangge" or "reform yangge".[69][70]

A notable dancer of the early period was Dai Ailian who collected folk dances and created new works based on these folk dances of the Han people as well as other ethnic minorities for public presentation. Her works include Lotus Dance which is based on a Shaanxi folk dance, Flying Apsaras based on the murals of Mogao caves, The Drum of Yao People, The Mute Carries the Cripple, Tibetan Spring, and Anhui Folk Dance[71][72] Dai also established the first ballet school in China, Beijing Dance School, in 1954.[73] Western dance forms became popular in the 20th century, for example Western ballroom dancing became popular in in the 1940s Shanghai nightclubs, and early Communists leaders such as Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai were also avid Soviet-style ballroom dancers. Previously it would not have been permissible for men and women from respectable families to dance together.[74]

In the PRC era, the practice of creating new dances based on the older forms of dances continued. Although traditional titles are used, much of the dances presented in theatre and television are modern imagination of ancient dances using modern choreography.

Dragon dance and lion dance

Dragon dance.

Among the best-known of the Chinese traditional dances are the Dragon dance and Lion dance, and both dances were known in earlier dynasties in various forms. A form of lion dance similar to today's lion dance was described as early as the Tang Dynasty, the modern form of the dragon dance however may be a more recent development.

In some of the earliest dances recorded in China, dancers may have dressed as animal and mythical beasts, and during the Han Dynasty, some forms of the dragon dance were mentioned. Chinese dragon was associated with rain, and during the Han Dynasty, a dance may be performed during a ritual to appeal for rain at time of drought. according to the Han Dynasty text Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals by Dong Zhongshu, as part of the ritual, clay figures of the dragons were made and children or adults may then perform a dance. The number of dragons, their length and colour, as well as the performers may vary according to the time of year.[75][76] In the baixi variety shows, performers called "mime people" (象人) dressed up as various creatures such as a green dragon playing a flute, and acts where fish turned into a dragon were also described.[24][77] Some of the performances are depicted in Han Dynasty stone relief engravings, and the props used appear to be cumbersome and do not resemble modern form of the dance. Modern Dragon Dance uses light-weight structure manipulated by a dozen or so of men using poles at regular intervals along the length of the dragon, and some forms of the dragon can be very long and involve hundreds of performers. There are more than 700 different dragon dances in China.[78]

A lion dance

The Lion dance has been suggested to have been introduced from outside China as lion is not native to China, and the Chinese word for lion itself, shi (獅), may have been derived from the Persian word šer.[79] Detailed description of Lion Dance appeared during the Tang Dynasty and it was then recognized as a foreign import, but the dance may have existed in China as early as the third century AD.[30] Suggested origin of the dance include India and Persia,[80][81] and during the Northern and Southern Dynasties it had association with Buddhism. In the Tang court, the lion dance was called the Great Peace Music (太平樂) or the Lion Dance of the Five Directions (五方師子舞) where five large lions of different colours, each over 3 metres tall and each had 12 "lion lads" with the lions being teased by performers holding red whisks.[82] Another version was performed by two persons, and was described by Tang poet Bai Juyi in his poem "Western Liang Arts" (西凉伎), where the dancers wear a lion costume made of a wooden head, a silk tail and furry body, with eyes gilded with gold and teeth plated with silver, and ears that moves, a form that that resembles today's Lion Dance.[83] There are two main forms of Chinese Lion Dance, the Northern Lion and Southern Lion. A form of the Lion Dance is also found in Tibet where it is called the Snow Lion Dance.[84]

References

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  62. ↑ by Sharon E. Friedler, Susan Glazer, ed. (2003). Dancing Female: Lives and Issues of Women in Contemporary Dance. Routledge. ISBN 978-9057020261.
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  73. ↑ Sanjoy Roy (11 August 2011). "Step-by-step guide to dance: National Ballet of China". The Guardian.
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  75. ↑ Lihui Yang, Deming An (2008). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0195332636.
  76. ↑ "《求雨》". Chinese Text Project.
  77. ↑ "西京賦".
  78. ↑ Janet Descutner. Asian Dance. Chelsea House Publishing. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-1604134780.
  79. ↑ Laurence E. R. Picken (1984). Music for a Lion Dance of the Song Dynasty. Musica Asiatica: volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0521278379.
  80. ↑ Berthold Laufer. Kleinere Schriften: Publikationen aus der Zeit von 1911 bis 1925. 2 v. p. 1444. ISBN 978-3515026512.
  81. ↑ Mona Schrempf (2002), "chapter 6 - The Earth-Ox and Snowlion", in Toni Huber, Amdo Tibetans in Transition: Society and Culture in the Post-Mao Era, Brill, p. 164, ISBN 9004125965, During the Persian New Year of Newruz, a lion dance used to be performed by young boys, some of the naked it seems, who were sprinkled with cold water. They were thus supposed to drive out evil forces and the cold of the winter.
  82. ↑ Carol Stepanchuk, Charles Choy Wong (1992). China Books & Periodicals. p. 38. ISBN 978-0835124812.
  83. ↑ "《西凉伎》". 西凉伎，假面胡人假狮子。刻木为头丝作尾，金镀眼睛银贴齿。奋迅毛衣摆双耳，如从流沙来万里。紫髯深目两胡儿，鼓舞跳粱前致辞。
  84. ↑ Mona Schrempf (2002), Toni Huber, ed., Amdo Tibetans in Transition: Society and Culture in the Post-Mao Era (PDF), Brill, pp. 147–169, ISBN 9004125965

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