Georgism

"Georgist" redirects here. For the Romanian political group, see National Liberal Party-Brătianu.

Georgism (also known as geoism and geonomics) is an economic philosophy holding that the economic value derived from natural resources and natural opportunities should belong equally to all residents of a community, but that people own the value they create.[1][2][3] The Georgist paradigm offers solutions to social and ecological problems, relying on principles of land rights and public finance which attempt to integrate economic efficiency with social justice.[4][5]

Georgism is concerned with the just distribution of economic rent caused by natural monopolies, pollution, and the control of commons, including title over natural resources and other contrived privileges (e.g., intellectual property). Any natural resource, which is inherently limited in supply, can generate economic rent, but the classical and most significant example of 'land monopoly' involves the extraction of common ground rent from the value of urban and agricultural locations.

Georgists argue that taxing economic rent derived from land and natural resources is efficient, fair, and equitable. The main Georgist policy tool is a fee assessed on location value, often referred to as a land value tax (LVT). Georgists argue that socially captured rents can reduce or eliminate existing taxes on labor and investment that are unfair or inefficient. Some Georgists also advocate for the return of surplus public revenue collected from economic rent back to the people through a basic income or citizen's dividend. Economists since Adam Smith have observed that, unlike other taxes, a land value tax would not cause any economic inefficiency and even stimulates economic activity.[6] A land value tax is often said to have progressive tax effects, in that it is paid primarily by the wealthy without being passed on to tenants.[7][8] Land value capture would reduce economic inequality, increase wages, remove incentives to misuse real estate, and reduce the vulnerability that economies face from credit and property bubbles.[9]

The philosophical basis of Georgism dates back to several early proponents such as John Locke[10] and Baruch Spinoza,[11] but the concept of gaining public revenues from natural resource privileges was widely popularized by the economist and social reformer Henry George and his first book, Progress and Poverty.[12]

Georgist ideas were popular and influential in the earlier part of the 20th century.[13] Political parties, institutions and communities were founded based on Georgist principles during that time. Early followers of George's philosophy called themselves Single Taxers, associated with the idea of raising public revenue exclusively from land and privileges, but the term is considered a misnomer because Georgists do not consider their proposals to be true taxes and they usually support multiple funding mechanisms. In classical and Georgist economics, the term 'land' is defined as all locations, natural opportunities, resources, physical forces, and government privileges over economic domains, which is closely related to the concept of commons.[14] Georgism was coined later, and some prefer the term geoism or geonomics to distinguish their beliefs from those of Henry George.[15] instead.[16]

Main tenets

A supply and demand diagram showing the effects of land value taxation. Note that the burden of the tax is entirely on the land owner, and there is no deadweight loss.
See also: Land value tax

Henry George is best known for his argument that the economic rent of land should be shared equally by the people of a society rather than being owned privately. George held that people own what they create, but that natural resources, most importantly land, belong equally to all.[2] George believed that although scientific experiments could not be carried out in political economy, theories could be tested by comparing different societies with different conditions and through thought experiments about the effects of various factors.[17] Applying this method, George concluded that many of the problems that beset society, such as poverty, inequality, and economic booms and busts, could be attributed to the private ownership of the necessary resource, land.

In Progress and Poverty George argued: "We must make land common property."[18] He believed there was an important distinction between common and collective property.[19] Although equal rights to land could be achieved by nationalizing land and then leasing it to private parties, George preferred taxing unimproved land value. A land value tax would not overly penalize those who had already bought and improved land, and would also be less disruptive and controversial in a country where land titles have already been granted.

Some Georgists have observed that in modern states, privately created wealth is socialized via the tax system (through income tax, etc.), but socially created wealth from community created land values are privatized and owned by private individuals and corporations. They argue that the opposite would be the case when a single tax on land value is implemented; that socially created wealth is taxed and used by the community, while privately created wealth remains private as no other taxes are levied.[20]

In Georgism, a land value tax is seen as fitting the definition of a user fee instead of a tax, since it is tied to the market value of socially created locational advantage, the privilege to exclude others from locations. Assets consisting of commodified privilege can be viewed as wealth since they have exchange value, similar to taxi medallions.[21] A land value tax, charging fees for exclusive use of land, as a means of raising public revenue is also a progressive tax tending to reduce economic inequality,[7][8] since it falls entirely on ownership of valuable land, which is highly correlated to incomes,[22] and there is no means by which landlords can shift the tax burden onto tenants or laborers.

Economic properties

Standard economic theory suggests that a land value tax would be extremely efficient – unlike other taxes, it does not reduce economic productivity.[9] Nobel laureate Milton Friedman described Henry George's tax on unimproved value of land as the "least bad tax", since unlike other taxes, it would not impose an excess burden on economic activity (leading to zero or even negative "deadweight loss"); hence, a replacement of other more distortionary taxes with a land value tax would improve economic welfare.[23] As land value tax can improve the use of land and redirect investment toward productive, non-rentseeking activities, it could even have a negative deadweight loss that boosts productivity.[24] Because land value tax would fall on foreign land speculators, the Australian Treasury estimated that land value tax was unique in having a negative marginal excess burden, meaning that it would increase long-run living standards.[25]

It was Adam Smith who first noted the efficiency and distributional properties of a land value tax in his book, The Wealth of Nations:[6]

Ground-rents are a still more proper subject of taxation than the rent of houses. A tax upon ground-rents would not raise the rents of houses. It would fall altogether upon the owner of the ground-rent, who acts always as a monopolist, and exacts the greatest rent which can be got for the use of his ground. More or less can be got for it according as the competitors happen to be richer or poorer, or can afford to gratify their fancy for a particular spot of ground at a greater or smaller expense. In every country the greatest number of rich competitors is in the capital, and it is there accordingly that the highest ground-rents are always to be found. As the wealth of those competitors would in no respect be increased by a tax upon ground-rents, they would not probably be disposed to pay more for the use of the ground. Whether the tax was to be advanced by the inhabitant, or by the owner of the ground, would be of little importance. The more the inhabitant was obliged to pay for the tax, the less he would incline to pay for the ground; so that the final payment of the tax would fall altogether upon the owner of the ground-rent.

Both ground-rents and the ordinary rent of land are a species of revenue which the owner, in many cases, enjoys without any care or attention of his own. Though a part of this revenue should be taken from him in order to defray the expenses of the state, no discouragement will thereby be given to any sort of industry. The annual produce of the land and labour of the society, the real wealth and revenue of the great body of the people, might be the same after such a tax as before. Ground-rents and the ordinary rent of land are, therefore, perhaps, the species of revenue which can best bear to have a peculiar tax imposed upon them. [...] Nothing can be more reasonable than that a fund which owes its existence to the good government of the state should be taxed peculiarly, or should contribute something more than the greater part of other funds, towards the support of that government.

Ben Franklin and Winston Churchill made similar distributional and efficient arguments for publicly capturing land rents. They noted that the costs of taxes and the benefits of public spending always eventually fall on and enrich, respectively, the owners of land. Therefore, they believed it would be best to defray public costs and recapture value of public spending by placing public charges directly on owners of land titles, rather than harming public welfare with taxes on trade and labor.[26][27]

Sources of economic rent and related policy interventions

Income flow resulting from payments for restricted access to natural opportunities or for contrived privileges over geographic regions is called economic rent. Georgists argue that economic rent of land, legal privileges, and natural monopolies should accrue to the community, rather than private owners. In economics, "land" is everything that exists in nature independent of human activity. While the philosophy of Georgism does not say anything definitive about specific policy interventions needed to address problems posed by various sources of economic rent, the common goal among modern georgists is to capture and share (or reduce) rent from all sources of natural monopoly and legal privilege.[28][29]

Henry George shared the goal of modern Georgists to socialize or dismantle rent from all forms of land monopoly and legal privilege. However, George focused mainly on his preferred policy tool known as land value tax, which targeted a particular form of unearned income called ground rent. George focused on ground-rent because basic locations were more valuable than other monopolies and everybody needed locations to survive, which he contrasted with the less significant streetcar and telegraph monopolies, which George also spoke out against. George likened the problem to a laborer traveling home who is waylaid by a series of highway robbers along the way, each who demand a small portion of the traveler's wages, and finally at the very end of the road waits a robber who demands all that the traveler has left. George reasoned that it made little difference to challenge the series of small robbers when the final robber remained to demand all that the common laborer had left.[30] George predicted that over time technological advancements would increase the frequency and importance of lesser monopolies, yet he expected that ground rent would remain dominant.[31] George even predicted that ground-rents would rise faster than wages and income to capital, a prediction that modern analysis has shown to be plausible, since the supply of land is fixed.[32]

Common ground rent is still the primary focus of Georgists because of its large value and the known diseconomies of misused land. However, there are other sources of rent that are theoretically analogous to ground-rent and are highly debated topics within Georgism. The following are some sources of economic rent.[33][34][35]

Georgism and environmental economics

The early conservationist movement of the Progressive Era was inspired by Henry George and his influence extended for decades afterward.[46] Some ecological economists still support the Georgist policy of land value tax as a means of freeing or rewilding unused land and conserving nature by reducing urban sprawl.[47][48][49]

Pollution degrades the value of what Georgists consider to be commons. Because pollution is a negative contribution, a taking from the commons or a cost imposed on others, its value is economic rent, even when the polluter is not receiving an explicit income. Therefore, to the extent that society determines pollution to be harmful, most Georgists propose to limit pollution and then capture the resulting rents for public use, restoration, or a citizen's dividend.[28][50][51]

Georgism is related to the school of ecological economics, since both propose market based restrictions on pollution.[47][52] The schools are compatible in that they advocate using similar tools as part of a conservation strategy, but they emphasize different aspects. Conservation is the central issue of ecology, whereas economic rent is the central issue of geoism. Ecological economists might price pollution fines more conservatively to prevent inherently unquantifiable damage to the environment, whereas Georgists might emphasize mediation between conflicting interests and human rights.[29][53] Geolibertarianism, a market oriented branch of geoism, tends to take a direct stance against what it perceives as burdensome regulation and would like to see auctioned pollution quotas or taxes replace most command and control regulation.[54]

Since ecologists are primarily concerned with conservation, they tend to put less emphasis on the issue of equitably distributing scarcity/pollution rents, whereas Georgists insist that unearned income not be captured by those who hold title to natural assets and pollution privilege. To the extent that geoists recognize the impact of pollution or share conservationist values, they will agree with ecological economists about the need to limit pollution, but geoists will also crucially insist that pollution rents generated from those conservation efforts are not captured by polluters and are instead used for public purposes or to compensate those who suffer the negative effects of pollution. Ecological economists advocate similar pollution restrictions but, placing conservation first, might be willing to grant private polluters the privilege to capture pollution rents. To the extent that ecological economists share the geoist view of social justice, they would advocate auctioning pollution quotas instead of giving them away for free.[47] This distinction can be seen clearly in the difference between basic cap and trade and the geoist variation, cap and share, a proposal to auction temporary pollution permits, with rents going to the public, instead of giving pollution privilege away for free to existing polluters or selling perpetual permits.[55]

Revenue uses

Georgists suggest two uses for the revenue from a land value tax. The revenue can be used to fund the state (allowing the reduction or elimination of other taxes), or it can be redistributed to citizens as a pension or basic income (or it can be divided between these two options).[29][56][57]

In practice, the elimination of all other taxes implies a very high land value tax, higher than any currently existing land tax. Introducing a high land value tax would cause the price of land titles to decrease correspondingly, but George did not believe landowners should be compensated, and described the issue as being analogous to compensation for former slave owners. Many other geoists disagree on the question of compensation, ranging from complete compensation to only the compensation required to achieve Georgist reform.

Synonyms and variants

Most early advocacy groups described themselves as Single Taxers, and George reluctantly accepted "single tax" as an accurate label for the movement's main political goal—the replacement of all unjust or inefficient taxes with the capture of land-rents, primarily using a land value tax (LVT). In the modern era, some groups inspired by Georgism emphasize environmentalism, while others emphasize its egalitarian free market philosophy; utilitarians and urbanists emphasize the economic and social benefits of efficiently utilizing land.

Some modern proponents are dissatisfied with the name Georgist. While Henry George was well known throughout his life, he has been largely forgotten by the public and the idea of a single tax of land predates him. Some now prefer the term geoism,[16][58] with the meaning of geo (earth, in Greek) deliberately ambiguous. The terms Earth Sharing,[59] geonomics,[60] and geolibertarianism[61] (see Libertarianism) are also used by some Georgists. These terms represent a difference of emphasis, and sometimes real differences about how land rent should be spent (citizen's dividend or just replacing other taxes); but all agree that land rent should be recovered from its private recipients.

Compulsory fines and fees related to land rents are the most common Georgist policies, but some geoists prefer voluntary value capture systems that rely on methods such as non-compulsory or self-assessed location value fees, community land trusts,[62] and purchasing land value covenants.[63][64][65][66][67]

Some geoists believe that partially compensating landowners is a politically expedient compromise necessary for achieving reform.[68][69] For similar reasons, others propose capturing only future land value increases, instead of all land rent.[70]

Though Georgism has historically been viewed as a radically progressive or socialist ideology, some libertarians and minarchists take the position that limited social spending should be financed using Georgist concepts of rent value capture, but that not all land rent should to be captured. Today, this conservative adaptation is usually considered incompatible with true geolibertarianism, which requires that excess rents be gathered and then distributed back to residents. During Henry George's time, this position was known as "single tax limited", as opposed to "single tax unlimited". Henry George disagreed with the limited interpretation but accepted its adherents (e.g., Thomas Shearman) as legitimate "single-taxers" [Georgists].[71] (See Milton Friedman in "Critical reception")

Influence

Henry George, whose writings and advocacy form the basis for Georgism

Georgist ideas heavily influenced the politics of the early 20th century. Political parties that were formed based on Georgist ideas include the Commonwealth Land Party, the Justice Party of Denmark, the Henry George Justice Party, and the Single Tax League.

In the UK in 1909, the Liberal Government included a land tax as part of several taxes in the People's Budget aimed at redistributing wealth (including a progressively graded income tax and an increase of inheritance tax). This caused a crisis which resulted indirectly in reform of the House of Lords. The budget was passed eventually—but without the land tax. In 1931, the minority Labour Government passed a land value tax as part III of the 1931 Finance act. However, this was repealed in 1934 by the National Government before it could be implemented.

In Denmark, the Georgist Justice Party has previously been represented in Folketinget. It formed part of a centre-left government 1957–60 and was also represented in the European Parliament 1978–79. The influence of Henry George has waned over time, but Georgist ideas still occasionally emerge in politics. In the 2004 Presidential campaign, Ralph Nader mentioned Henry George in his policy statements.[72]

Communities

Several communities were also initiated with Georgist principles during the height of the philosophy's popularity. Two such communities that still exist are Arden, Delaware, which was founded in 1900 by Frank Stephens and Will Price, and Fairhope, Alabama, which was founded in 1894 by the auspices of the Fairhope Single Tax Corporation.[73]

The German protectorate of Jiaozhou Bay (also known as Kiaochow) in China fully implemented Georgist policy. Its sole source of government revenue was the land value tax of six percent which it levied on its territory. The German government had previously had economic problems with its African colonies caused by land speculation. One of the main aims in using the land value tax in Jiaozhou Bay was to eliminate such speculation, an aim which was entirely achieved.[74] The colony existed as a German protectorate from 1898 until 1914, when seized by Japanese and British troops. In 1922 the territory was returned to China.

Henry George School of Social Science in New York

Georgist ideas were also adopted to some degree in Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, and Taiwan. In these countries, governments still levy some type of land value tax, albeit with exemptions.[75] Many municipal governments of the USA depend on real property tax as their main source of revenue, although such taxes are not Georgist as they generally include the value of buildings and other improvements, one exception being the town of Altoona, Pennsylvania, which only taxes land value.

Institutes and organizations

Various organizations still exist that continue to promote the ideas of Henry George. According to the The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, the periodical Land&Liberty, established in 1894, is "the longest-lived Georgist project in history".[76] Also in the U.S., the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy was established in 1974 founded based on the writings of Henry George, and "seeks to improve the dialogue about urban development, the built environment, and tax policy in the United States and abroad".[77] The Henry George Foundation continues to promote the ideas of Henry George in the UK.[78] The IU is an international umbrella organisation that brings together organizations worldwide that seek land value tax reform.[79]

Critical reception

Richard T. Ely, known as the "Father of Land Economics", agreed with the economic arguments for Georgism but believed that correcting the problem the way Henry George wanted (without compensation) was unjust to existing landowners. In explaining his position, Ely wrote that "If we have all made a mistake, should one party to the transaction alone bear the cost of the common blunder?"[80]

Karl Marx viewed the Single Tax platform as a step backwards from the transition to communism and referred to Georgism as "Capitalism’s last ditch."[81] Marx argued that, "The whole thing is... simply an attempt, decked out with socialism, to save capitalist domination and indeed to establish it afresh on an even wider basis than its present one."[82] Marx also criticized the way land value tax theory emphasizes the value of land, arguing that, "His fundamental dogma is that everything would be all right if ground rent were paid to the state."[82] Fred Harrison replies to these Marxist objections in "Gronlund and other Marxists – Part III: nineteenth-century Americas critics", American Journal of Economics and Sociology.[83]

George has also been accused of exaggerating the importance of his "all-devouring rent thesis" in claiming that it is the primary cause of poverty and injustice in society.[84] George argued that the rent of land increased faster than wages for labor because the supply of land is fixed. Modern economists, including Ottmar Edenhofer have demonstrated that George's assertion is plausible but was more likely to be true during George's time than today.[32]

Contemporaries such as Frank Fetter and John Bates Clark argued that it was impractical to distinguish land from capital, and used this as a basis to attack Georgism. Mark Blaug, a specialist in the history of economic thought, credits Fetter and Clark with influencing mainstream economists to abandon the idea "that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent" claiming that "this is in fact the basis of all the attacks on Henry George by contemporary economists and certainly the fundamental reason why professional economists increasingly ignored him."[85]

An early criticism of Georgism was that it would generate too much public revenue and lead to unwanted growth of government. Joseph Schumpeter later concluded his analysis of Georgism by stating that, "It is not economically unsound, except that it involves an unwarranted optimism concerning the yield of such a tax." Economists who study land conclude that Schumpeter's criticism is unwarranted because the rental yield from land is likely much greater than what modern critics such as Paul Krugman suppose.[86] Krugman agrees that land value taxation is the best means of raising public revenue but asserts that increased spending has rendered land rent insufficient to fully fund government.[87] Georgists have responded by citing studies and analyses implying that land values of nations like the US, UK, and Australia are more than sufficient to fund all levels of government.[88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95]

Anarcho-capitalist political philosopher and economist Murray Rothbard criticized Georgism in Man, Economy, and State as being philosophically incongruent with subjective value theory, and further stating that land is irrelevant in the factors of production, trade, and price systems.[96] Rothbard's economic critique is well recognized as relying on false assumptions and flawed reasoning, even by people who ultimately agree with Rothbard in opposing Georgism.[97]

Chicago school libertarian economist Milton Friedman agreed with "the Henry George argument" as being "the least bad" means of raising whatever public revenue was needed.[98] Georgists agree with Friedman that land titles should remain private and not be socialized. However, Friedman viewed Georgism as partially immoral, due to a difference of opinion about the validity of vested property rights in land. Georgists believe that the private capture of unimproved land-rents is inherently unjust, drawing comparisons to slavery.[99]

Austrian economist Friedrich Hayek credited early enthusiasm for Henry George with developing his interest in economics. Later, Hayek said that the theory of Georgism would be very strong if assessment challenges didn't lead to unfair outcomes, but he believed that they would.[100]

Notable Georgists

See also

References

  1. ↑ "An Introduction to Georgist Philosophy & Activity". http://www.cgocouncil.org/''. Council of Georgist Organizations. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Heavey, Jerome F. (July 2003). "Comments on Warren Samuels' "Why the Georgist movement has not succeeded"". American Journal of Economics and Sociology 62 (3): 593–599. doi:10.1111/1536-7150.00230. JSTOR 3487813. human beings have an inalienable right to the product of their own labor
  3. ↑ McNab, Jane. "How the reputation of Georgists turned minds against the idea of a land rent tax" (PDF). http://www.business.uwa.edu.au/''. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
  4. ↑ Gaffney, Mason, and Harrison, Fred (1994). The Corruption of Economics. London: Shepheard-Walwyn. ISBN 978-0-85683-244-4
  5. ↑ Hudson, Michael; Feder, Kris; and Miller, George James (1994). A Philosophy for a Fair Society. Shepheard-Walwyn, London. ISBN 978-0-85683-159-1.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Smith, Adam (1776). "Chapter 2, Article 1: Taxes upon the Rent of Houses". The Wealth of Nations, Book V.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Binswanger-Mkhize, Hans P; Bourguignon, Camille; Brink, Rogier van den (2009). Agricultural Land Redistribution : Toward Greater Consensus. World Bank. A land tax is considered a progressive tax in that wealthy landowners normally should be paying relatively more than poorer landowners and tenants. Conversely, a tax on buildings can be said to be regressive, falling heavily on tenants who generally are poorer than the landlords
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Plummer, Elizabeth (March 2010). "Evidence on the Distributional Effects of a Land Value Tax on Residential Households" (PDF). National Tax Journal. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Land Value Taxation: An Applied Analysis, William J. McCluskey, Riël C. D. Franzsen
  10. ↑ Locke, John. "Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising the Value of Money". Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  11. ↑ Gaffney, Mason. "Logos Abused: The Decadence and Tyranny of Abstract Reasoning in Economics" (PDF). Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  12. ↑ Foldvary, Fred. "Geoism Explained". The Progress Report. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
  13. ↑ The Forgotten Idea That Shaped Great U.S. Cities by Mason Gaffney & Rich Nymoen, Commons magazine,October 17, 2013.
  14. ↑ ""ECONOMICS" and POLITICAL ECONOMY". http://www.henrygeorge.org/''. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  15. ↑ Tideman, Nic. "Basic Principles of Geonomics". Retrieved 15 January 2015.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Casal, Paula (2011). "Global Taxes on Natural Resources" (PDF). Journal of Moral Philosophy 8 (3): 307–327. doi:10.1163/174552411x591339. Retrieved 14 March 2014. It can also invoke geoism, a philosophical tradition encompassing the views of John Locke and Henry George ...
  17. ↑ Progress and Poverty – "Introduction: The Problem of Poverty Amid Progress
  18. ↑ George, Henry (1879). "2". Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth VI. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
  19. ↑ Common Rights vs. Collective Rights
  20. ↑ http://earthsharing.ca/page/poverty
  21. ↑ Inman, Phillip. "Could we build a better future on a land value tax?". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
  22. ↑ Aaron, Henry (May 1974). "A New View of Property Tax Incidence". The American Economic Review 64 (2). Retrieved 7 January 2015.
  23. ↑ Foldvary, Fred E. "Geo-Rent: A Plea to Public Economists". Econ Journal Watch (April 2005)
  24. ↑ Stiglitz, Joseph. "Thomas Piketty and Joseph Stiglitz". INETeconomics. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  25. ↑ "Re:Think. Tax discussion paper for March 2015" (PDF). http://bettertax.gov.au/''. The Australian Government the Treasury. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  26. ↑ Franklin, Benjamin (1840). Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2. McCarty & Davis. p. 32. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
  27. ↑ Shine, Mary L. (1922). Ideas of the founders of the American nation on landed property. University of Wisconsin. p. 196.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Davies, Lindy. "The Science of Political Economy: What George "Left Out"". http://www.politicaleconomy.org/''. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Batt, H. William. "The Compatibility of Georgist Economics and Ecological Economics". Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  30. ↑ George, Henry (1886). Protection or Free Trade. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  31. ↑ George, Henry (1997). An Anthology of Henry George's Thought, Volume 1. University Rochester Press. p. 148. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Mattauch, Linus; Siegmeier, Jan; Edenhofer, Ottmar; Creutzig, Felix (2013) : Financing Public Capital through Land Rent Taxation: A Macroeconomic Henry George Theorem, CESifo Working Paper, No. 4280 http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/77659/1/cesifo_wp4280.pdf
  33. ↑ Tideman, Nicolaus. "Using Tax Policy to Promote Urban Growth". Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Gaffney, Mason (July 3, 2008). "The Hidden Taxable Capacity of Land: Enough and to Spare" (PDF). International J. of Social Economics (Summer 2008). Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Fitzgerald, Karl. "Total Resource Rents of Australia" (PDF). Prosper Australia. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  36. ↑ Harriss, C. Lowell. "Nonrenewable Exhaustible Resources and Property Taxation." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 65.3 (2006): 693-699.
  37. ↑ George, Henry (1997). An Anthology of Henry George's Thought, Volume 1. University Rochester Press. p. 156. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  38. ↑ George, Henry. "Scotland and Scotsmen". Retrieved 16 June 2014. Address delivered on 18 February 1884 at the City Hall, Glasgow
  39. ↑ Miller, Joseph Dana (1921). "To Hold the Sea In Fee Simple". The Single Tax Review. 21-22: 37. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  40. ↑ Darrow, Clarence. "How to Abolish Unfair Taxation". Retrieved 15 June 2014.
  41. ↑ Sullivan, Dan. "Are you a Real Libertarian, or a ROYAL Libertarian?". Retrieved 15 June 2014.
  42. ↑ Post, Louis F. "Outlines of Louis F. Post's Lectures". Retrieved 15 June 2014.
  43. ↑ Zarlenga, Stephen. "Henry George’s Concept of Money (Full Text) And Its Implications For 21st Century Reform". http://www.monetary.org/''. American Monetary Institute. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  44. ↑ George, Henry. "On Patents and Copyrights". Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  45. ↑ Niman, Neil B. "Henry George and the Intellectual Foundations of the Open Source Movement" (PDF). http://schalkenbach.org/''. Retrieved 16 June 2014. "A modern counterpart to the nineteenth century focus on land can be found in the twentieth century concern with the establishment of intellectual property rights that fence off a portion of the creative commons in order to construct temporary monopolies."
  46. ↑ Fox, Stephen R. The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy. Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin, 1985.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Daly, Herman E., and Joshua C. Farley. Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications. Washington: Island, 2004.
  48. ↑ Cato, Molly Scott. "The Gypsy Rover, the Norman Yoke and the Land Value Tax". Retrieved 15 August 2014.
  49. ↑ Smith, Peter. "Beaver, Rewilding & Land Value Tax have the answer to the UK's Flooding Problem.". Retrieved 15 August 2014.
  50. ↑ Ikerd, John. "The Green Tax Shift: Winners and Losers". missouri.edu. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  51. ↑ Casal, Paula (2011). "Global Taxes on Natural Resources" (PDF). Journal of Moral Philosophy (8): 307–327. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
  52. ↑ Backhaus, Jurgen, and J. J. Krabbe. "Henry George's Contribution to Modern Environmental Policy: Part I, Theoretical Postulates." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 50.4 (1991): 485-501. Web. 14 Aug. 2014.
  53. ↑ Cobb, Clifford. "Herman Daly Festschrift: Ecological and Georgist Economic Principles: A Comparison". Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  54. ↑ Roark, Eric (2013). Removing the Commons: A Lockean Left-Libertarian Approach to the Just Use and Appropriation of Natural Resources. Lexington Books. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  55. ↑ Brebbia, C. A. (2012). Ecodynamics: The Prigogine Legacy. WIT Press. p. 104. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
  56. ↑ Hartzok, Alanna. "Citizen Dividends and Oil Resource Rents A Focus on Alaska, Norway and Nigeria". Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  57. ↑ Gaffney, Mason. "A Cannan Hits the Mark" (PDF). Retrieved 9 June 2014.
  58. ↑ Socialism, Capitalism, and Geoism – by Lindy Davies
  59. ↑ Introduction to Earth Sharing,
  60. ↑ Geonomics in a Nutshell
  61. ↑ Geoism and Libertarianism by Fred Foldvary
  62. ↑ Curtis, Mike. "The Arden Land Trust". Retrieved 30 May 2014.
  63. ↑ Adams, Martin. "Sharing the Value of Land: The Promise of Location Value Covenants". Retrieved 30 May 2014.
  64. ↑ Kent, Deirdre. "Land and Money Reform Synergy in New Zealand". Smart Taxes. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
  65. ↑ http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/wrigley-adrian_location-value-covenants-2010-06.pdf
  66. ↑ http://www.sfrgroup.org/Home/location-value-covenants
  67. ↑ Foldvery, Fred. "Geoanarchism A short summary of geoism and its relation to libertarianism.". Retrieved 29 May 2014.
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  102. ↑ Harter, Lafayette G. John R. Commons, His Assault on Laissez-faire. Corvallis: Oregon State UP, 1962. Pages 21, 32, 36, 38.
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  104. ↑ Brue, Stanley (2012). The Evolution of Economic Thought (PDF) (Supplemental Biography of John Rogers Commons for chapter 19 of the online edition of The Evolution of Economic Thought ed.). Cengage Learning. Retrieved 1 September 2014. "After reading Henry George's Progress and Poverty," Commons "became a single-taxer."
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  107. ↑ Edenhofer, Ottmar. "Hypergeorgism: When is Rent Taxation as a Remedy for Insufficient Capital Accumulation Socially Optimal?". Retrieved 11 November 2013. Edenhofer writes, "Extending and modifying the tenet of georgism, we propose that this insight be called hypergeorgism." "From a historical perspective, our result may be closer to Henry George’s original thinking than georgism or the neoclassical Henry George Theorems."
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  118. ↑ Quotes from Nobel Prize Winners Herbert Simon stated in 1978: "Assuming that a tax increase is necessary, it is clearly preferable to impose the additional cost on land by increasing the land tax, rather than to increase the wage tax – the two alternatives open to the City (of Pittsburgh). It is the use and occupancy of property that creates the need for the municipal services that appear as the largest item in the budget – fire and police protection, waste removal, and public works. The average increase in tax bills of city residents will be about twice as great with wage tax increase than with a land tax increase."
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  121. ↑ Cleveland, Mary Manning. "How a Progressive Tax System Made Detroit a Powerhouse (and Could Again)". Retrieved 3 February 2015.
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  129. ↑ Bastian, Peter (2009). Andrew Fisher an underestimated man. Sydney, N.S.W: UNSW Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 1742230040.
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  134. ↑ WOOLF, S.J. (April 27, 1941). "MORGENTHAU AT 85 RECALLS A FULL LIFE; MORGENTHAU AT 85". New York Times. NY Times Magazine. At heart [Woodrow Wilson] was a follower of Henry George and strongly objected to private profit accruing through the increase in land values.
  135. ↑ Trescott, Paul B. (2007). Jingji Xue: The History of the Introduction of Western Economic Ideas Into China, 1850-1950. Chinese University Press. pp. 46–48. The foregoing help to demonstrate why Sun Yat-sen would have regarded Henry George as a very credible guide, and why in 1912 Sun could tell an interviewer, 'The teachings of your single-taxer, Henry George, will be the basis of our program of reform.'
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  146. ↑ Arcas Cubero, Fernando: El movimiento georgista y los orígenes del Andalucismo : análisis del periódico "El impuesto único" (1911–1923). Málaga : Editorial Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorros, 1980. ISBN 84-500-3784-0
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  159. ↑ How to Abolish Unfair Taxation: An Address Before a Los Angeles Audience, Delivered March 1913 http://books.google.com/books/about/How_to_Abolish_Unfair_Taxation.html?id=rlOFHAAACAAJ
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  227. ↑ Muse return with new album The Resistance "Sure, he has already launched into a passionate soliloquy about Geoism (the land-tax movement inspired by the 19th-century political economist Henry George)".
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  259. ↑ Vallentyne, Peter. Left-libertarianism: A Primer. In Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000). "Left-libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate". Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Publishers Ltd. "Georgist libertarians—such as eponymous George (1879, 1892), Steiner (1977, 1980, 1981, 1992, 1994), and Tideman (1991, 1997, 1998)—hold that agents may appropriate unappropriated natural resources as long as they pay for the competitive value of the rights they claim."
  260. ↑ Babson, Roger (Aug 20, 1943). "Roger Babson Sees Many Changes To Come After the War Has Ended". The Evening Independent. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
  261. ↑ Two lettrs written in 1934 to Henry George's daughter, Anna George De Mille. In one letter Einstein writes, "The spreading of these works is a really deserving cause, for our generation especially has many and important things to learn from Henry George."
  262. ↑ Elazar, Daniel (February 4, 1955). "Earth Is the Lord's". http://www.newspapers.com/. The Wisconsin Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  263. ↑ Wilhelm, Donald (September 5, 1942). "Henry Ford Talks About War and Your Future". Liberty Magazine. Retrieved 23 November 2014. Henry Ford says, "[. . .]every American family can have a piece of land. We ought to tax all idle land the way Henry George said — tax it heavily, so that its owners would have to make it productive"
  264. ↑ Onken, Werner. "The Political Economy of Silvio Gesell: A Century of Activism." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 59.4 (2000): 609-22. Web. 16 Aug. 2014.
  265. ↑ MacCallum, Spencer H. (Summer–Fall 1997). "The Alternative Georgist Tradition" (PDF). FRAGMENTS 35. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
  266. ↑ Foldvary, Fred E. (April 2004). "Heath: Estranged Georgist". American Journal of Economics and Sociology 63 (2): pages 411–431. doi:10.1111/j.0002-9246.2004.00295.x. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
  267. ↑ Justice for Mumia Abu-Jamal
  268. ↑ http://schalkenbach.org/the-georgist-news/all/GN2/GN2-2.htm. Retrieved 1 October 2013. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  269. ↑ Kennedy, Margrit. "Money & The Land Grab". YouTube. Share the Rents. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
  270. ↑ Lincoln, John. "Fighting For Fundamentals". Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  271. ↑ Magie invented The Landlord's Game, predecessor to Monopoly
  272. ↑ Dodson, Edward J. "How Henry George's Principles Were Corrupted Into the Game Called Monopoly". Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  273. ↑ Gaffney, Mason. "Henry George Dr. Edward McGlynn & Pope Leo XIII" (PDF). Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  274. ↑ "OFFERS $250,000 FOR SINGLE TAX CAMPAIGN; Joseph Fels Pledges That Sum for Five Years Here and in England. IF THERE IS AN EQUAL FUND Commission of Single Taxers Formed to Raise the Fund -- Roosevelt, Taft, and Hughes Said to be Friendly.". New York Times. May 8, 1909. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
  275. ↑ Thomas B. Buell (1974). The Quiet Warrior. Boston: Little, Brown.
  276. ↑ Mills, Allen. "Single Tax, Socialism and the Independent Labour Party of Manitoba: The Political Ideas of F.J. Dixon and S.J. Farmer." Labour / Le Travail 5 (1980): 33-56. JSTOR. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/25139947?ref=no-x-route:ace15c2e1d6b230b7bafc46e82f39f89>
  277. ↑ "American Single Taxers Invade Tiny Andorra; Fiske Warren Carries Their Gospel to the Republic Hidden for Twelve Centuries in the Pyrenees Between France and Spain". New York Times. April 16, 1916. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  278. ↑ Sinclair, Upton. "The Consequences of Land Speculation are Tenantry and Debt on the Farms, and Slums and Luxury in the Cities". Retrieved 29 July 2014.
  279. ↑ Stanley, Buder (1990). Visionaries and Planners: The Garden City Movement and the Modern Community. Oxford University Press. Wallace described Progress and Poverty as “Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century.”
  280. ↑ Dudden, Arthur (1971). Joseph Fels and the single tax movement. Temple University Press.

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