Gender representation in video games

"Women in video games" redirects here. For women as video game developers and players, see women and video games.

The portrayal of men and women in video games, as in other media, is a subject of research in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in video gaming. These portrayals often reflect traditional gender roles or popular stereotypes, such as that of the female "damsel in distress". Women are significantly underrepresented as characters in mainstream games, particularly as protagonists.

Gamer demographics

A young girl playing a video game

According to the Entertainment Software Association, 48% of all American video game players in 2014 were women.[1] In 2014 in the UK and in Spain, women comprised 52% and 48% of video game players respectively.[2]

Both men and women play video games but studies seem to suggest some differences in typical platform and game genre preference.[3] The Entertainment Software Rating Board reports that in 2010, 80% of female console gamers played on Wii, 11% on Xbox360 and 9% on PS3. By comparison, 38% of male console gamers in the year 2014 played Xbox 360, 41% played Wii and 21% played PS3.[4]

A 2013 study by Flurry looked at the different mobile gaming preferences between men and women. Women made up 60-80% of the solitaire, slots, social turn-based, match3/bubble-shooter, management/simulation and quiz game markets. Men on the other hand, made up between 60-80% of the strategy, shooter, card battle, racing and action RPG markets.[5]

A 2014 SuperData Research study found that men and women enjoy video games, but some genres tend to attract one gender over the other: Women compose 57.8 percent of the mobile market, 53.6 percent of the RPG market and 50.2 percent of the PC market (including social games). The study found that men make up 66 percent of MMO players, 66 percent of FPS players and 63 percent of digital console players.[3]

Portrayal of women

Two women dressed up as video game characters at Moscow's Igromir trade show in 2011

The portrayal of women in video games has been the subject of academic study and controversy since the early 1980s. Recurring themes in articles and discussions on the topic include the sexual objectification and sexualization of characters as well as the degree to which female characters are independent from their male counterparts within the same game. Exposure to sexualized media representations of women in television and magazines was alleged to reduce male compassion toward women and reduce females' perceptions of their desire and suitability for various vocations.[6]

Roles of women

Prevalence

Studies of the prevalence of female characters in video games began to be conducted in sociological, educational, and cultural journals as early as the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1979, researchers publishing in Psychological Record (Vol.29, No.1. Pp.43–48) concluded from the results of a 201-person survey that 90% of male subjects and 85% of female subjects perceived the computer as masculine (in gameplay versus the computer).[7] In 1983, professor Sara Kiesler et al. published a study in Psychology Today (Vol.17, No.3. Pp.40–48.) finding that female characters appeared in video games at a frequency of 1 game in 7.[7] Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz suggested that the reduced presence of female characters implies a secondary status for women in video games. When playable female characters do appear in video games, they are more often scantily dressed and oversexualized than men.[8]

According to data gathered by Electronic Entertainment Design and Research (EEDAR) in 2012, few video games have exclusively female heroes. This is in part because, according to EEDAR, "there's a sense in the industry that games with female heroes won't sell", which Penny Arcade Report attributed in part to these games receiving much smaller marketing budgets than games with male heroes.[9]

Playable female characters were found to appear less frequently than male characters in reviews for popular games in a 2006 study from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.[10][11] A 2007 study by Melinda C. R. Burgess et al. found that men are featured much more often than women on the covers of console video games.[6]

In a sample of 669 action, shooter, and role-playing games selected by EEDAR in 2012, only 24 (4%) had an exclusively female protagonist, and 300 (45%) provided the option of selecting one. Examining the sales data and review scores of these games, EEDAR found that the games that included the option of selecting a female hero obtained better scores, but the ones with male-only protagonists sold better than the others. However, games with a female-only protagonist had, on average, only 50% of the marketing budget of female-optional games, and 40% of the marketing budget of games with male-only protagonists.[9]

According to Madeline Messer writing in the Washington Post in 2015, among the top 50 endless running games for mobile devices, 98% of those with gender-identifiable characters featured male protagonists, of which 90% were free to play. Only 46% of these games offered female characters, and only 15% offered them for free. Playing as a girl required, on average, an additional purchase of $7.53, much more than the games themselves cost.[12]

Evolution

Samus Aran, the heroine of Metroid (1986) and its successors, is often cited as "the first playable human female character in a mainstream videogame".[13] However, other earlier games featured female player characters, such as Toby Masuyo ("Kissy") from Baraduke (1985).[14][15]

Lara Croft, the protagonist of Tomb Raider (1996), is among the best-known strong, fictional women in a variety of media.[16] April Ryan from The Longest Journey (1999) has been compared to Lara Croft in that respect, as she shows less prominent physical feminine attributes than Lara but more feminine psychological traits, as contrasted with Lara's masculine connotations like aggressiveness and force.[17] Contrarily, Jade, the protagonist of Beyond Good & Evil (2003), was widely recognized as a strong and confident female character lacking any overt sexualisation.[18][19]

In 2014 the developers' choice to omit playable women in the latest iterations of the top-tier gaming franchises Assassin's Creed and Far Cry became a focus of discussions in gaming media. This indicated, according to game industry professionals cited by Polygon, a shift in the industry's attention towards issues of diversity in gaming, in conjunction with video games as a whole growing beyond their former core audience of younger men.[20]

Female supporting characters

A number of games feature a female character as an ally or sidekick to the male hero. Some of them, like Ada Wong and Mona Sax, were turned into player characters in later instances of their series. Alyx Vance, a supporting protagonist of Half-Life 2, was praised for her "stinging personality" and intelligence, developing a close bond with the player without simply being "eye candy".[21][22]

However, female characters are often cast in the role of the damsel in distress, with their rescue being the objective of the game.[23][24] Princess Zelda in the early The Legend of Zelda series and Princess Peach through much of the Mario series are paradigmatic examples. Both of them, however, became playable in the later games of their series or had the pattern altered.

Female antagonists

One of the first major female villains in video games was the Dark Queen in Battletoads (1991) and its sequels.[25] SHODAN, an artificial intelligence with a female voice and a female face, was the main villain of the game System Shock (1994), praised as one of the most recognizable female characters in gaming.[26] Another prominent female villain is Ultimecia, the main antagonist in Final Fantasy VIII (1999). At PAX Prime 2013, she was voted among the best female antagonists in video gaming history.[27] Similarly, GLaDOS from Portal (2007), an insane computer with a female voice, was praised by critics as one of the best new characters of the 2000s.[28]

Depiction of women

Objectification and sexualization

Many recent games have increased the sexualized portrayal of women so as to appeal to a male audience.[23] In 2012, for instance, Dead or Alive director Yohei Shimbori admitted the developers received complaints from fans who had played the Dead or Alive 5 demo packaged with Ninja Gaiden 3. According to Shimbori, "We actually got a lot of feedback from people who were playing it, saying, 'We want bigger breasts. Make the characters more like that.' That was kind of surprising."[29]

Female video game characters have been criticized as having a tendency to be subjects of the "male gaze".[30] A print ad for the fighting game Soulcalibur V received some controversy for simply being a close up of a female character's breasts with a tagline.[31] In two sequels of fighting games Soulcalibur and Tekken that take place several years after the original issue, recurring male characters were all aged but all female characters were kept the same age or were replaced by their daughters.[32]

Since her introduction in 1996, the character of Lara Croft from the Tomb Raider series in particular has been criticized for her "unrealistic" breast size; Lara was claimed to personify "an ongoing culture clash over gender, sexuality, empowerment, and objectification."[33] However, the game's creators maintain that she was not designed with marketing in mind, and have claimed to be rather surprised at her pinup-style adoration.[34] In Tomb Raider: Legend, Lara underwent a radical redesign, ostensibly to make her less sexualized.[35]

In their 2005 study, Dill and Thill distinguish three major stereotypical depictions of women in gaming: (1) sexualized, (2) scantily clad, and (3) a vision of beauty. The study revealed that over 80% of women in video games represented one of these depictions. More than one quarter of female characters embodied all of the three stereotypical categories at once. Dill and Thill also note that another prevalent theme with which women were depicted was a combination of aggression and sex, referred to as "eroticized aggression".[36] According to sociology professor and researcher Tracy Dietz, women are often depicted in stereotypical roles that typically pertain to sexuality in which the woman focuses upon beauty/physical attractiveness.[37]

Women in scanty armor

A recurrent representation of women in fantasy settings, originating in the 1960s, is the woman warrior dressed in "unrealistically" scanty armor.[38] They feature armor designs which have been described by such terms as "chainmail bikinis", largely consisting of small decorative plaques that reveal large portions of the body to the weather and that expose vital organs, thus being noneffective as protection.[39] The prevalence of this portrayal is presented as an instance of the common sexualization of women in the geek culture including video games, comic and movies.[30] In reaction to this, the art blog "Women Fighters in Reasonable Armor"[40] compiles depictions of women fighters wearing "realistic" armor.[41]

In comparison to male characters

According to Anita Sarkeesian, many early female video game characters (such as Ms. Pac-Man) are identical to an existing male character, except for a visual marker of their femininity, such as pink bows, lipstick and long eyelashes.[42][43]

In a study done in Southwestern Oklahoma State University comparing the appearances of male and female characters on video game covers, a few things were discovered. On covers, male characters were five times more likely to be represented as the main character in the game, and women were merely portrayed as side kicks or accessories. Both male and female character's physiques were over-exaggerated on video game covers, but females were more "physically altered" (especially in the bust) than their male counterparts, and even more so if the female was the main character of the game.[6]

Violence against women

Sexual violence

The 1982 game Custer's Revenge was first noted for containing elements of rape and some Native American groups and the National Organization for Women have criticised this as well as alleged racism.[44]

The 2013 reboot of Tomb Raider series drew controversy when Kotaku claimed executive producer Ron Rosenberg said rape was utilized as a means for the eponymous character's development.[45] Crystal Dynamics denied that the scene depicted an attempted rape.[46][47]

Non-sexual violence

Violence in video games is a hotly debated topic; some sources condemned video games for promoting violence against women.[48] For example, the 2013 game Dead Island: Riptide generated controversy when the special "zombie bait" edition of the game included a statue of a torso of a busty, dismembered woman in a skimpy bikini.[49]

Portrayal of men

Men are also said to be often portrayed stereotypically in games. They tend to be shown as muscular and big. For instance, men in video games have chests that are about 2 inches (6%) larger, heads that are about 13 inches bigger, waists that are 5 inches wider, and hips that are 7 inches wider, than in reality.[50] They are often characterized as overtly aggressive and violent.[37] Following the releases of Grand Theft Auto V, the developers were met with criticism regarding both the portrayal of women and torture, but also that of men. Two of the main characters, Trevor Philips and Michael De Santa, have since been interpreted by some as portraying men as "liars, cheats, bad husbands and fathers, and psychopaths."[51]

GamesRadar writer David Houghton, writing in an article on sexism in video games, was highly critical of many stereotypes that came with male protagonists, outlining them as "the primeval hunter/gatherer type [with] arm-cripplingly ripped biceps, necks too muscley to turn, emotion dials stuck on 'aggressive grimace' and a 50% lack of chest coverings."[52]

Jamin Warren on PBS Game/Show highlighted that video games could promote "unreasonable body expectations, or an inability to express emotion, or the pressure to 'man up' and be a leader." He also highlighted that the vast majority of characters who perform and experience violence in video games are men, while women and children are generally to be protected.[53]

Portrayal of LGBT characters

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) characters have been depicted in video games since the 1980s. Common depictions include comical gender confusion, transgender characters, gay characters in fighting and action games, and gay romance in role-playing games.

In the history of video games, LGBT content has been subject to changing rules and regulations, which are generally examples of heterosexism, in that heterosexuality is normalized, while homosexuality is subject to additional censorship or ridicule. Companies Nintendo, Sega and Maxis policed the content of games with content codes in which LGBT themes were toned down or erased.[54][55][56][57]

Sexual orientation and gender identity have served a significant role in some video games, with the trend being toward greater visibility of LGBT identities.[58][59][60] Speaking on the Ubisoft blog, Lucien Soulband, who is openly gay and was the writer for Far Cry 3: Blood Dragon, said that openly gay or lesbian characters would not appear in video games for a long while as anything other than a one-off or something that was created through user choice as seen in the Mass Effect and Dragon Age games.[61]

Effect of gender representation in games

Effect on attitudes towards gender

According to Christina Hoff Sommers, there is no evidence that video games make men misogynist: "In fact, all the data we have suggest that millennial males—and these are people born and raised in 'Video Game Nation'—are far less prone to ... prejudices than previous generations."[62]

However, Dill, Brown, and Collins found that males reported playing more violent video games than females, and that this violent video game exposure was negatively correlated with sexual harassment judgments—meaning those who reported long term exposure to violent video games had an increased tolerance towards sexual harassment when judging a real life case of sexual harassment. The exposure to violent video games was also correlated with rape supportive attitudes. Both of these tests resulted in a p-value of less than .001, meaning that it is extremely unlikely that these measured observations would occur without this relationship existing.[63]

Effect on children

Canadian non-profit MediaSmarts writes that "video games have the potential to influence how children perceive themselves and others", and despite their impact on the youth, "there is not a lot of research available in this area, and few of the existing studies stand up to critical examination. This lack of scrutiny means that we know very little about the effects that video games may have on children's development and socialization."[64]

According to Dietz, video game characters have the potential to shape players' perceptions of gender roles. Through social comparison processes, players learn societal expectations of appearances, behaviors and roles.[37] Girls may expect that they be dependent victims and that their responsibilities include maintaining beauty and sexual appeal, while boys may determine that their role is to protect and defend women.[37] Thus, Dietz claims, the roles internalized by the child, including gender, become for the child, and later for the adult, a basis for other roles and for action. The gender roles internalized by young individuals have a significant impact upon their perspectives and the additional roles they assume in later life. Feminine and masculine symbols are supposed to become a part of a child's identity.[37]

Players' preferences

A 2015 survey of 1,583 U.S. students aged 11 to 18 by Rosalind Wiseman and Ashly Burch indicated that 60% of girls but only 39% of boys preferred to play a character of their own gender, and 28% of girls as opposed to 20% of boys said that they were more likely to play a game based on the character's gender. The authors interpreted this as meaning that the gaming industry's focus on male protagonists stifled sales to girls more than it promoted sales to boys.[65]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ 2014 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry (PDF). Entertainment Software Association. April 2014. p. 3. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
  2. ↑ Natxo Medina (2014-09-24). "Ellas también juegan, o por qué el machismo gamer no tiene ningún sentido". Retrieved 2014-09-29.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jessica Conditt (2014-09-24). "LReport: Men play more MMOs, FPSes; women rule mobile, RPG". Joystiq.
  4. ↑ ESRB (2014-09-24). "How Much Do You Know About Video Games?". Retrieved 2014-11-09.
  5. ↑ Dan Laughlin (2014-09-24). "Love, Courtship and the Promiscuous Male Mobile Gamer".
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Burgess, Melinda C. R.; Steven Paul Stermer & Stephen R. Burgess (30 June 2007). "Sex, Lies, and Video Games: The Portrayal of Male and Female Characters on Video Game Covers". Sex Roles 57 (5–6): 419–433. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9250-0.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Leroux, Yvan and Michel Pépin. "Jeu Sur Micro-Ordinateur et Différences Liées au Sexe". Revue des Sciences de l'Education. Vol.XII, No.2. Pp.173-196. 1986. ISSN 0318-479X
  8. ↑ Behm-Morawitz, Elizabeth, and Dana Mastro. "The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept." Sex Roles 61.11 (2009): 808-823. ProQuest. Web. 22 April 2014.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kuchera, Ben (21 November 2012). "Games with exclusively female heroes don't sell (because publishers don't support them)". Penny Arcade Report. Archived from the original on 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
  10. ↑ Ivory, J. D. (2006). Still a man's game: Gender representation in online reviews of video games. Mass Communication & Society, 9(1), 103-114. The sample of reviews was taken from the "Top Rated" and "Most Popular" lists from GameSpot in March 26, 2004.
  11. ↑ Miller, M. K., & Summers, A. (2007). Gender differences in video game characters' roles, appearances, and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex roles, 57(9-10), 733-742.
  12. ↑ Messer, Madeline (4 March 2015). "I’m a 12-year-old girl. Why don’t the characters in my apps look like me?". Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  13. ↑ Guinness World Records 2013: Gamer's Edition. Guinness World Records Ltd. 2012. p. 154. ISBN 9781904994954.
  14. ↑ Kurt Kalata. "Obscure Namco characters". Hardcore Gaming 101. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
  15. ↑ Sean Aaron. "Nintendo Download: 13-14 October 2009 (Japan)". nintendolife.com. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
  16. ↑ Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon; Smith, Jonas Heide; Pajares Tosca, Susana (2008). "Player culture". Understanding video games: the essential introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-415-97721-0. Retrieved 2011-07-03. "Helen Kennedy [...] summarizes these arguments, and Lara Croft's ambivalent role as both an action heroine [...], and an eroticized object of the male gaze with a great deal of voyeuristic appeal".
  17. ↑ Lie, Merete. "Lara Croft and her sisters" (PDF). Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Retrieved 2011-07-03. She is attractive, but no sex bomb" "April may, however, appear as more feminine because even if she is tough and brave, she is depicted as both sensitive and vain
  18. ↑ Rougeau, Michael (March 4, 2013). "50 Greatest Heroines In Video Game History". Complex. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
  19. ↑ "Bayonetta: empowering or exploitative?". GamePro. 2010-01-06. Archived from the original on 2010-01-09. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
  20. ↑ Crecente, Brian (23 June 2014). "As game players diversify, developers start to rethink the stars of their games". Polygon. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
  21. ↑ Top 50 Videogame Hotties. UGO.com. Retrieved on 2008-12-14
  22. ↑ Top 11 Girls of Gaming. UGO.com. Retrieved on 2008-12-28
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Kaitlin Tremblay (06/01/12). "Intro to Gender Criticism for Gamers: From Princess Peach, to Claire Redfield, to FemSheps.". Gamasutra. Retrieved 8 October 2013. Check date values in: |date= (help)
    In video games, the major stereotyped myths of women are typically the damsel in distress, hyper-sexualized villain (Sylvia Christel from No More Heroes) and the sexy/strong best friend (Tifa from Final Fantasy VII). [...] In all of these instances, the female character is, more likely than not, in love with the male protagonist or trying desperately to bang him.
  24. ↑ Stephen Totilo (2013-06-20). "Shigeru Miyamoto and the Damsel In Distress". Kotaku. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
  25. ↑ Steven A. Schwartz, Janet Schwartz, The Parent's Guide to Video Games, Prima Pub., 1994 (p.8)
  26. ↑ TenSpot: Ten Best Female Characters. GameSpot. Retrieved on 19 November 2013
  27. ↑ Ewalt, David M. (2013-08-31). "Are These The Top Women Game Characters of All Time?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2013-10-31. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  28. ↑ "The 25 best new characters of the decade". GamesRadar. 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2010-01-04.
  29. ↑ "Team Ninja learns to fear its fans". Gamasutra. 2012-09-26. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Harris O'Malley. "Nerds and Male Privilege". Kotaku.
  31. ↑ David Griner (January 10, 2012). "Videogame Ad Sets New Low for Objectifying Women". AdWeek. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  32. ↑ Geordie Tait. "To My Someday Daughter".
  33. ↑ Zoe Flower. "Getting the Girl: The myths, misconceptions, and misdemeanors of females in games". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  34. ↑ N'gai Croal and Jane Hughes (1997-11-10). "Lara Croft, the Bit Girl". Newsweek.
  35. ↑ "Lara's curves reduced to appeal to female gamers". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2005-05-21. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
  36. ↑ Dill, Karen E.; Thill K. P. (2007). "Video Game Characters and the Socialization of Gender Roles: Young People's Perceptions Mirror Sexist Media Depictions". Sex Roles 57: 851–864. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Dietz, Tracy (1998). "An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Video Games: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior". Sex Roles 38 (5/6): 425–442. doi:10.1023/A:1018709905920.
  38. ↑ Griner, David (4 June 2013). "Will the Fantasy Genre Ever Grow Up and Ditch the Chainmail Bikini? Industry bulletin's cover sets off firestorm". Adweek. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  39. ↑ "Fantasy armor and lady bits". MadArtLab.com.
  40. ↑ Women Fighters in Reasonable Armor
  41. ↑ Charlie Jane Anders. "Women Fighters in Reasonable Armor: An Idea Whose Time Has Come". io9.
  42. ↑ Sarkeesian, Anita. "Tropes vs Women Ms. Male Character". Feminist Frequency.
  43. ↑ Patricia Hernandez. "New Anita Sarkeesian Video Looks At Gaming's 'Ms. Male' Trope". Kotaku. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  44. ↑ "Top Ten Shameful Games: 1. Custer's Revenge (Atari 2600)". GameSpy. 2002-12-31. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
  45. ↑ "You'll 'Want To Protect' The New, Less Curvy Lara Croft". Kotaku. 2012-06-11. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
  46. ↑ "Tomb Raider Creators Are No Longer Referring to Game's Attempted 'Rape' Scene As an Attempted Rape Scene". Kotaku. 2012-06-13. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
  47. ↑ "Tomb Raider Creators Say 'Rape' Is Not A Word In Their Vocabulary". Kotaku. 2012-06-29. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
  48. ↑ "Women's role in popular video games: Stripped down and killed off". Media Report to Women 31 (1): p. 1. Winter 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
  49. ↑ Brian Crecente (January 15, 2013). "Dead Island Riptide's bloody torso statue sparks anger, confusion". Polygon.com. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  50. ↑ Martins, N., D.C. Williams, R.A. Ratan, and K. Harrison. 2011. "Virtual muscularity: A content analysis of male video game characters". Body Image. 8 (1): 43-51.
  51. ↑ Tassi, Paul (2013). "On Gender and 'GTA 5'". Forbes. Retrieved April 24, 2015.
  52. ↑ Houghton, David (2012-06-23). "Are video games really sexist?". GamesRadar. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
  53. ↑ "Do Videogame Stereotypes Hurt Men?". 2013-10-02. Retrieved 2014-09-29.
  54. ↑ Steltenpohl, Crystal. "GLBT History in Video Games: 1990s". Gaming Bus. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
  55. ↑ Ripplinger, Mike (2002). "The Two Phantasy Stars". Camineet. Archived from the original on 2008-02-04. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
  56. ↑ "Autonomous Romantic Socials - Same Sex", by werismyki
  57. ↑ "Why is My Town Gay?", by Srikandi
  58. ↑ games/ "Homosexuality in Video Games", by Lydia Sung
  59. ↑ "How Not To Address Homosexuality In Gaming", by Mike Fahey
  60. ↑ Alexander Sliwinski. "Gay gamer survey results with large hetero inclusion". Joystiq.
  61. ↑ Gera, Emily (2014-02-28). "Video games won't feature gay protagonists 'for a while,' says Far Cry 3 writer Lucien Soulban". Polygon. Retrieved 2014-02-28.
  62. ↑ Christina Hoff Sommers (2014-09-06). "Are video games sexist?". AEI. Retrieved 2014-09-29.
  63. ↑ , Dill, Karen E., Brian P. Brown, and Michael A. Collins. "Effects of exposure to sex-stereotyped video game characters on tolerance of sexual harassment." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44.5 (2008): 1402-1408.
  64. ↑ "The Concerns About Video Games". Retrieved 2014-09-27.
  65. ↑ Hall, Charlie (5 March 2015). "The games industry is wrong about kids, gaming and gender". Polygon. Retrieved 8 March 2015.

References