Fuel cell vehicle

Toyota Mirai, 2014
2014 Honda FCX Clarity (discontinued)[1]

A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of vehicle which uses a fuel cell to power its on-board electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles create electricity to power an electric motor, generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. A fuel cell vehicle that is fueled with hydrogen emits only water and heat, but no tailpipe pollutants, therefore it is considered a zero-emissions vehicle. Depending on the process, however, producing the hydrogen used in the vehicle creates pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in space applications. The first commercial production fuel cell automobiles are being sold in California by Toyota and leased on a limited basis by Hyundai, with additional manufacturers planning to enter the market. Furthermore, fuel cells are being developed and tested in buses, boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.

As of early 2014, there is limited hydrogen infrastructure, with 10 hydrogen fueling stations for automobiles publicly available in the U.S., but more hydrogen stations are planned, particularly in California. New stations are also planned in Japan and Germany. Critics doubt whether hydrogen will be efficient or cost effective for automobiles, as compared with other zero emission technologies.

Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles

Further information: Fuel cell

All fuel cells are made up of three parts: an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode.[2] In principle, a hydrogen fuel cell functions like a battery, producing electricity, which can run an electric motor. Instead of requiring recharging, however, the fuel cell can be refilled with hydrogen.[3] Different types of fuel cells include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel cell and Regenerative Fuel Cells.[4]

Emissions

As of 2009, motor vehicles used most of the petroleum consumed in the U.S. and produced over 60% of the carbon monoxide emissions and about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States.[5] In contrast, a vehicle fueled with pure hydrogen emits few pollutants, producing mainly water and heat, although the production of the hydrogen would create pollutants unless the hydrogen used in the fuel cell were produced using only renewable energy.[6]

History

The concept of the fuel cell was first demonstrated by Humphry Davis in the early 19th century. The generally credited inventor of the fuel cell is William Grove. Grove was a chemist, layer, and physicist who spent a large portion of his time conducting experiments with what he called a gas voltaic battery. These experiments proved that electric current could be produced by the electrochemical reaction of breaking the hydrogen atom. [7]The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor, fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell, around 1959.[8] The Cold War Space Race drove further development of fuel cell technology. Project Gemini tested fuel cells to provide electrical power during manned space missions.[9][10] Fuel cell development continued with the Apollo Program. The electrical power systems in the Apollo capsules and lunar modules used alkali fuel cells.[9] In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell road vehicle, the Chevrolet Electrovan.[11] It had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of 70 mph. There were only two seats, as the fuel cell stack and fuel tanks took up the rear portion of the van. Only one was built, as the project was deemed cost-prohibitive.[12] General Electric and others continued working on PEM fuel cells in the 1970s.[9]

1966 GM Electrovan[13]

Fuel cell stacks were still limited principally to space applications in the 1980s, including the Space Shuttle.[9] However, the closure of the Apollo Program sent many industry experts to private companies. By the 1990s, automobile manufacturers were interested in fuel cell applications, and demonstration vehicles were readied. In 2001, the first 700 Bar (10000 PSI) hydrogen tanks were demonstrated, reducing the size of the fuel tanks that could be used in vehicles and extending the range.[14]

Applications

Further information: List of fuel cell vehicles

There are fuel cell vehicles for all modes of transport. The most prevalent fuel cell vehicles are cars, buses, forklifts and material handling vehicles.[15]

Automobiles

Production of the Honda FCX Clarity began in 2008, and was available for leasing customers in Japan and Southern California. In 2014 Honda announced the end of production of the FCX Clarity for the 2015 model. From 2008 to 2014, Honda leased a total of 45 FCX units in the US.[1] The Hyundai ix35 FCEV Fuel Cell vehicle is available for lease.[16] In 2014, a total of 54 units were leased.[17] Over 20 other FCEVs prototypes and demonstration cars have been released since 2009.[18] Automobiles such as the GM HydroGen4,[11] and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell are pre-commercial examples of fuel cell electric vehicles. Fuel cell electric vehicles have driven more than 3 million miles, with more than 27,000 refuelings.[19]

The Toyota Mirai was unveiled at the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show.

Sales of the Toyota Mirai to government and corporate customers began in Japan on December 15, 2014.[20] Pricing starts at ¥6.7 million (~US$57,400) before taxes and a government incentive of ¥2 million (~US$19,600).[21] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[22] Initially sales are not available to individual retail customers. As of December 2014, domestic orders had reached over 400 Mirais, surpassing Japan's first-year sales target, and as a result, there was a waiting list of more than a year.[20] Toyota plans to build 700 vehicles for global sales during 2015, 400 to be sold in Japan, 200 units in the United States and between 50 to 100 units in Europe.[23] Sales are scheduled to begin in California by mid-2015, followed by five Northeastern States in the first half of 2016. The market launch in Europe is slated for September 2015.[23]

Some notable releases since 2008 include:[18]

Limited commercial releases
Demonstration or concept vehicles
Fuel economy

The following table compares EPA's fuel economy expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) as rated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the two hydrogen fuel cell vehicles available for leasing in California as of December 2014.[24]

Comparison of fuel economy expressed in MPGe for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
available for leasing in California as of December 2014
(EPA ratings)[24]
Vehicle Model year Combined
fuel economy 		City
fuel economy		 Highway
fuel economy		Range
Honda FCX Clarity 201459 mpg-e58 mpg-e 60 mpg-e231 mi (372 km)
Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell201549 mpg-e48 mpg-e 50 mpg-e265 mi (426 km)
Notes: One kg of hydrogen is roughly equivalent to one U.S. gallon of gasoline in Gasoline gallon equivalent.

According to Toyota, the Mirai has a total range of up to 300 mi (480 km) under the EPA cycle,[25] and it is expected to have a fuel economy of about 60 MPGe.[26]

Buses

Mercedes-Benz fuel cell bus.

There are also demonstration models of buses,[27] and in total there are over 100 fuel cell buses deployed around the world today. Most of these buses are produced by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC buses have already accumulated over 970,000 km (600,000 mi) of driving.[28] Fuel cell buses have a 30-141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.[29] Fuel cell buses have been deployed around the world including in Whistler Canada, San Francisco USA, Hamburg Germany, Shanghai China, London England, São Paulo Brazil as well as several others.[30] The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses. Notable Projects Include:

The first Brazilian hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype in Brazil was deployed in São Paulo. The bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses.[34][35]

Forklifts

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a fuel cell forklift) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials. Most fuel cells used in forklifts are powered by PEM fuel cells.[36]

In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the USA[37] from which only 500 received funding from DOE (2012).[38][39] Fuel cell fleets are operated by a large number of companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.[40] Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units,[41] with other projects in France[42][43] and Austria.[44] Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel-cell-powered forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[45]

PEM fuel-cell-powered forklifts provide significant benefits over both petroleum powered forklifts as they produce no local emissions. As compared with electric vehicles, fuel-cell forklifts can work for a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can be refueled in 3 minutes and have a lifetime of 8–10 years. Fuel cell-powered forklifts are often used in refrigerated warehouses as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.[46] In design the FC units are often made as drop-in replacements.[47][48]

Motorcycles and bicycles

Yamaha FC-me motorcycle.

In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km (100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph).[49] In 2004 Honda developed a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC Stack.[50][51] There are other examples of bikes[52] and bicycles[53] with a hydrogen fuel cell engine. The Suzuki Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.[54] The Taiwanese company APFCT conducts a live street test with 80 fuel cell scooters[55] for Taiwans Bureau of Energy using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA[56] with a 2012 production target of 1,000 fuel cell scooters.

Airplanes

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.

Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.[57] In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a unique FlatStackTM stack design which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the plane.[58]

There have been several fuel cell powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). A Horizon fuel cell UAV set the record distance flow for a small UAV in 2007.[59] The military is especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. In 2009 the Naval Research Laboratory’s (NRL’s) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.[60] Boeing is completing tests on the Phantom Eye, a high-altitude, long endurance (HALE) to be used to conduct research and surveillance flying at 20,000 m (65,000 ft) for up to four days at a time.[61] Fuel cells are also being used to provide auxiliary power for aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs.[61] Fuel cells can help airplanes reduce CO2 and other pollutant emissions and noise.

Boats

Main article: hydrogen ship
The Hydra fuel cell boat.

The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. For each liter of fuel consumed, the average outboard motor produces 140 times less the hydrocarbons produced by the average modern car. Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiencies than combustion engines, and therefore offer better range and significantly reduced emissions.[62] Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats. Amsterdam recently introduced its first fuel cell powered boat that ferries people around the city's famous and beautiful canals.[63]

Submarines

The only submersible applications of fuel cells are the Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies. "[64] Each Type 212 contains nine PEM fuel cells, spread throughout the ship, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each of electrical power. The fuel cells provide distinct advantages over traditional diesel-electric power systems due to more efficient use of oxygen and quieter operation.[65] This allows the Type 212 to remain submerged longer and makes them more difficult to detect. Fuel cell powered submarines are also easier to design, manufacture, and maintain than nuclear-powered submarines.[66]

Hydrogen infrastructure

Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt stated in 2010 that challenges remain before fuel cell cars can become competitive with other technologies and cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S.:[67] In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen filling stations in the U.S., eight of which are in Southern California.[68] The same year, however, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years to build up to 100 stations.[69] In May 2014 the California Energy Commission funded $46.6 million to build 28 stations.[70]

In 2014, Japan got its first commercial hydrogen fueling station, and 40 new stations are planned that country.[71] 50 are planned in Germany.[72]

Codes and standards

Fuel cell vehicle is a classification in FC Hydrogen codes and standards and fuel cell codes and standards[73] other main standards are Stationary fuel cell applications and Portable fuel cell applications.

USA programs

In 2003 US President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI). The HFI aimed to further develop hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies to accelerate the commercial introduction of fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project.[74] In 2009, Steven Chu, then the US Secretary of Energy, asserted that hydrogen vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years".[75][76] In 2012, however, Chu stated that he saw fuel cell cars as more economically feasible as natural gas prices had fallen and hydrogen reforming technologies had improved.[77][78] In June 2013 the California Energy Commission granted $18.7M for hydrogen fueling stations.[79] In 2013 Governor Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years for up to 100 stations.[69] In 2013 the US DOE announced up to $4 million planned for "continued development of advanced hydrogen storage systems".[80] On May 13, 2013 the Energy Department launched H2USA, which is focused on advancing hydrogen infrastructure in the US.[81]

Efficiency and cost

2010 - Advancements in fuel cell technology have reduced the size, weight and cost of fuel cell electric vehicles.[82] In 2010, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated that the cost of automobile fuel cells had fallen 80% since 2002 and that such fuel cells could potentially be manufactured for $51/kW, assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.[83] Fuel cell electric vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 250 miles between refueling".[83] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.[84] Deployed fuel cell buses have a 40% higher fuel economy than diesel buses.[82] EERE’s Fuel Cell Technologies Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved a 42 to 53% fuel cell electric vehicle efficiency at full power,[82] and a durability of over 75,000 miles with less than 10% voltage degradation, double that achieved in 2006.[83] In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". Lux's analysis concluded that by 2030, PEM stationary fuel cell applications will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including fuel cell forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.[85]

Well-to-Wheels analysis

In a 2005 Well-to-Wheels analysis, the DOE estimated that fuel cell electric vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas would result in emissions of approximately 55% of the CO2 per mile of internal combustion engine vehicles and have approximately 25% less emissions than hybrid vehicles.[86] In 2006, Ulf Bossel stated that the large amount of energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use."[87] Richard Gilbert, co-author of Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight without Oil (2010), comments, however, that producing hydrogen gas ends up using some of the energy it creates. Then, energy is taken up by converting the hydrogen back into electricity within fuel cells. "'This means that only a quarter of the initially available energy reaches the electric motor' ... Such losses in conversion don't stack up well against, for instance, recharging an electric vehicle (EV) like the Nissan Leaf or Chevy Volt from a wall socket".[88][89] A 2010 Well-to-wheels analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles report from Argonne National Laboratory states that renewable H2 pathways offer much larger green house gas benefits.[90] In 2010 a US DOE Well-to-Wheels publication assumed 94% energy efficiency for hydrogen compression to 6250 psi at the refueling station.[91]

Criticism

2008 - Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface wrote, "While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, due primarily to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction. ... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a [PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [if exchanging batteries is inconvenient]". The practical cost of fuel cells for cars will remain high, however, until production volumes incorporate economies of scale and a well-developed supply chain. Until then, costs are roughly one order of magnitude higher than DOE targets.[92]

In 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."[93] The Economist magazine, in 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".[94] The magazine noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."[94] The Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009, "Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."[95] The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries...?"[96]

The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly, production."[97] The New York Times noted that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen filling stations in the U.S.[68] Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."[98]

In 2014, journalist Julian Cox presented an analysis that challenged this assumption, calculating the efficiency of hydrogen to be only half that stated by government estimates.[99] Cox wrote in 2014 that producing hydrogen "is significantly more carbon intensive per unit of energy than coal. Mistaking fossil hydrogen from the hydraulic fracturing of shales for an environmentally sustainable energy pathway threatens to encourage energy policies that will dilute and potentially derail global efforts to head-off climate change due to the risk of diverting investment and focus from vehicle technologies that are economically compatible with renewable energy."[99] The Business Insider commented:

Pure hydrogen can be industrially derived, but it takes energy. If that energy does not come from renewable sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Another challenge is the lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical, and it's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today. ... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive".[100]

In 2014, climate blogger and former Dept. of Energy official Joseph Romm devoted three articles to critiques of hydrogen vehicles. He stated that FCVs still have not overcome the following issues: high cost of the vehicles, high fueling cost, and a lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."[101] Most importantly, he said, "FCVs aren't green" because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when hydrogen is produced, as 95% of it is, using the steam reforming process. He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."[102] GreenTech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.[103]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 John Voelcker (2014-07-29). "Honda Ends Three Green Models For 2015: Insight, Fit EV, FCX Clarity". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2014-08-20.
  2. ↑ "Basics", U.S. Department of Energy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.
  3. ↑ "What Is a Fuel Cell?", The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.
  4. ↑ "Types of Fuel Cells", U.S. Department of Energy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.
  5. ↑ "Fuel Cells for Transportation", U.S. Department of Energy, updated September 18, 2009. Retrieved June 7, 2010
  6. ↑ "Fuel Cell Vehicles", Fuel Economy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.
  7. ↑ http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/history
  8. ↑ Wand, George. “Fuel Cell History, Part 2”. “Fuel Cell Today”, April 2006, accessed August 2, 2011
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 “PEM Fuel Cells”. “Smithsonian Institution”, 2004, accessed August 2, 2011
  10. ↑ Dumoulin, Jim. “Gemini-V Information”. NASA - Kennedy Space Center, August 25, 2000, accessed August 2, 2011
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Eberle, Ulrich; Mueller, Bernd; von Helmolt, Rittmar (2012-07-15). "Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012". Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
  12. ↑ “1966 GM Electrovan”. “Hydrogen Fuel Cars Now”, accessed August 2, 2011
  13. ↑ John W. Fairbanks (August 30, 2004). "Engine Maturity, Efficiency, and Potential Improvements" (PDF). Diesel Engine Emission Reduction Conference Coronado, California. US Department of Energy. p. 10. Retrieved December 2, 2010.
  14. ↑ “Hydrogen Storage Technology for the Hydrogen Economy”. “Iljin Composite”, KCR, Korea, accessed August 2, 2011
  15. ↑ "Hydrogen Fueling Stations Could Reach 5,200 by 2020". Environmental Leader: Environmental & Energy Management News, July 20, 2011, accessed August 2, 2011
  16. ↑ Voelcker, John. "The New Hyundai ix35", Hyundai, accessed December 7, 2014
  17. ↑ "Plug-In Electric Car Sales Continue Rise In 2014: 100,000-Plus Last Year", Green Car Reports, January 5, 2015
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles Worldwide". TÜV SÜD Industrie Service GmbH, accessed on August 2, 2011
  19. ↑ Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. "Controlled Hydrogen Fleet and Infrastructure Demonstration and Validation Project". National Renewable Energy Laboratory, September 11, 2009, accessed on August 2, 2011
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Yoko Kubota (2014-12-15). "Toyota’s Fuel-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale". Japan Real Time (Wall Street Journall). Retrieved 2014-12-29.
  21. ↑ Ken Moritsugu (2014-11-18). "Toyota to start sales of fuel cell car next month". Associated Press (Fox News Chicago). Retrieved 2014-11-19.
  22. ↑ Ayre, James. "Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?", CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan", GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 John Voelcker (2014-11-18). "2016 Toyota Mirai Priced At $57,500, With $499 Monthly Lease". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2014-11-19.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy (2014-12-09). "Recently Tested Vehicles". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
  25. ↑ Mike Millikin (2014-11-18). "Toyota FCV Mirai launches in LA; initial TFCS specs; $57,500 or $499 lease; leaning on Prius analogy". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2014-11-23.
  26. ↑ Sebastian Blanco (2014-11-18). "2016 Toyota Mirai Fuel Cell Vehicle likely to get 60 MPGe". Autoblog Green. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
  27. ↑ "Safety, Codes, and Standards". DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program, February 2011, accessed on August 2, 2011
  28. ↑ "Transportation Fleet Vehicles: Overview". UTC Power. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  29. ↑ "FY 2010 annual progress report: VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview". John Garbak. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "National Fuel Cell Bus Program Awards". Calstart. Accessed 12 August 2011
  31. ↑ "European Fuel Cell Bus Project Extended by One Year". DaimlerChrysler. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
  32. ↑ "Fuel cell buses". Transport for London. Archived from the original on May 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  33. ↑ "UTC Power - Fuel Cell Fleet Vehicles".
  34. ↑ "Ônibus brasileiro movido a hidrogênio começa a rodar em São Paulo" (in Portuguese). Inovação Tecnológica. 2009-04-08. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
  35. ↑ "Ônibus a Hidrogênio vira realidade no Brasil" (in Portuguese). Inovação Tecnológica. April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
  36. ↑ Forbes - 12 Hydrogen And Fuel Cell Stocks
  37. ↑ Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground
  38. ↑ Fuel cell technologies program overview
  39. ↑ Economic Impact of Fuel Cell Deployment in Forklifts and for Backup Power under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
  40. ↑ "Fact Sheet: Materials Handling and Fuel Cells"
  41. ↑ Hylift
  42. ↑ First hydrogen station for fuel cell forklift trucks in France, for IKEA
  43. ↑ HyPulsion
  44. ↑ HyGear delivers hydrogen system for fuel cell based forklift trucks
  45. ↑ "Hydrogen Fueling Stations Could Reach 5,200 by 2020". Environmental Leader: Environmental & Energy Management News,20 July 2011, accessed 2 August 2011
  46. ↑ Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems
  47. ↑ Fuel cell technology
  48. ↑ Fuel cell forklift
  49. ↑ "The ENV Bike". Intelligent Energy. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
  50. ↑ "Honda Develops Fuel Cell Scooter Equipped with Honda FC Stack". Honda Motor Co. 2004-08-24. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
  51. ↑ Bryant, Eric (2005-07-21). "Honda to offer fuel-cell motorcycle". autoblog.com. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
  52. ↑ 15. Dezember 2007. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell electric bike". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
  53. ↑ "Horizon fuel cell vehicles: Transportation: Light Mobility". Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 2010. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  54. ↑ Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter
  55. ↑ APFCT won Taiwan BOE project contract for 80 FC scooters fleet demonstration
  56. ↑ Taiwan’s ZES hydrogen scooter
  57. ↑ "Boeing Successfully Flies Fuel Cell-Powered Airplane".. Boeing. April 3, 2008. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  58. ↑ "First Fuel Cell Microaircraft"
  59. ↑ "Horizon Fuel Cell Powers New World Record in UAV Flight". Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. November 1, 2007.
  60. ↑ "Fuel Cell Powered UAV Completes 23-hour Flight". Alternative Energy: News. October 22, 2009. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Hydrogen-powered unmanned aircraft completes set of tests".www.theengineer.co.uk. 20 June 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  62. ↑ "Fuel Cell Basics: Applications". Fuel Cells 2000. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  63. ↑ "Lovers introduces zero-emission boat" (in Dutch). NemoH2. March 28, 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  64. ↑ "Super-stealth sub powered by fuel cell". Frederik Pleitgen. CNN Tech: Nuclear Weapons. February 22, 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  65. ↑ "U212 / U214 Attack Submarines, Germany". Navel-Technology.com. Accessed August 2, 2011.
  66. ↑ Hammerschmidt, Albert E. “Fuel Cell Propulsion of Submarines”. “Sea Siemens” Accessed August 3, 2011.
  67. ↑ Eberle, Ulrich and Rittmar von Helmolt. "Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview". Energy & Environmental Science, Royal Society of Chemistry, May 14, 2010, accessed August 2, 2011 Template:Fee for article
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Berman, Bradley. "Fuel Cells at Center Stage", New York Times, November 24, 2013, p. AU1
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Xiong, Ben. "Governor Brown Signs AB 8", California Fuel Cell Partnership, September 30, 2013
  70. ↑ "California investing nearly $50 million in hydrogen refueling stations", California Energy Commission, May 1, 2014
  71. ↑ Japan gets its first commercial hydrogen station for vehicles
  72. ↑ 50 hydrogen refuelling stations for Germany – locations confirmed
  73. ↑ "FC Vehicle standards". Fuelcellstandards.com. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
  74. ↑ Nice, Karim, and Jonathan Strickland. "How Fuel Cells Work". How Stuff Works, accessed August 3, 2011
  75. ↑ Matthew L. Wald (2009-05-07), U.S. Drops Research Into Fuel Cells for Cars, New York Times, retrieved 2009-05-09
  76. ↑ Bullis, Kevin. "Q & A: Steven Chu", Technology Review, May 14, 2009
  77. ↑ "Chu Changes Mind on Hydrogen", Autoline Daily at 2.10 of video
  78. ↑ Motavalli, Jim. "Cheap Natural Gas Prompts Energy Department to Soften Its Line on Fuel Cells", The New York Times, 29 May 2012
  79. ↑ Anderson, Mark. State grants $18.7M for hydrogen fueling stations, Sacramento Business Journal, June 13, 2013
  80. ↑ Energy Department Announces up to $4 Million for Advanced Hydrogen Storage, DOE, October 29, 2013
  81. ↑ Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Garbak, John. "VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview". DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program, FY 2010 Annual Progress Report, accessed August 2, 2011
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 "Accomplishments and Progress". Fuel Cell Technology Program, U.S. Dept. of Energy, June 24, 2011
  84. ↑ Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. "National FCEV Learning Demonstration". National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2011, accessed August 2, 2011
  85. ↑ Brian Warshay, Brian. "The Great Compression: the Future of the Hydrogen Economy", Lux Research, Inc. January 2012
  86. ↑ "Distributed Hydrogen Production via Steam Methane Reforming". However, this 25% reduction is attributable to the use of natural gas to produce the hydrogen, whereas the hybrid car uses more CO2 intensive gasoline. A natural gas battery hybrid combustion engine car emits about the same amount of CO2 (uses just as much natural gas) as a battery hybrid hydrogen fuel cell car powered by natural gas derived hydrogen. Well-to-Wheels Case Studies for Hydrogen Pathways, DOE Hydrogen Program, accessed August 2, 2011
  87. ↑ Zyga, Lisa. "Why a hydrogen economy doesn't make sense". physorg.com, December 11, 2006, accessed August 2, 2011, citing Bossel, Ulf. "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?" Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006
  88. ↑ Gilbert, Richard and Anthony Perl (2010). Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight without Oil, New Society Publishers ISBN 0865716609
  89. ↑ "EarthTalk: High costs, hurdles keep hydrogen cell cars from mass production", Arizona Daily Sun, May 2, 2011
  90. ↑ Well-to-wheels analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
  91. ↑ Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions and petroleum use for mid-size light- duty vehicles
  92. ↑ Meyers, Jeremy P. "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype". The Electrochemical Society Interface, Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed August 7, 2011
  93. ↑ Squatriglia, Chuck. "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years", Wired, May 12, 2008
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 Wrigglesworth, Phil. "The car of the perpetual future"' September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008
  95. ↑ Neil, Dan (February 13, 2009). "Honda FCX Clarity: Beauty for beauty's sake". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
  96. ↑ Suplee, Curt. "Don't bet on a hydrogen car anytime soon". Washington Post, November 17, 2009
  97. ↑ Chatsko, Maxx. "1 Giant Obstacle Keeping Hydrogen Fuel Out of Your Gas Tank", The Motley Fool, November 23, 2013
  98. ↑ Blanco, Sebastian. "VW's Krebs talks hydrogen, says 'most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity'", AutoblogGreen, November 20, 2013
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 Cox, Julian. "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles", CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014
  100. ↑ Davies, Alex. "Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car", The Business Insider, November 22, 2013
  101. ↑ Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles", CleanProgress.com, August 13, 2014 and "Tesla Trumps Toyota 3: Why Electric Vehicles Are Beating Hydrogen Cars Today", CleanProgress.com, August 25, 2014
  102. ↑ Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars", CleanProgress.com, August 5, 2014
  103. ↑ Hunt, Tam. "Should California Reconsider Its Policy Support for Fuel-Cell Vehicles?", GreenTech Media, July 10, 2014

References

Carr. "The power and the glory: A special report on the future of energy", page 11. The Economist, 2008.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fuel cell-powered vehicles.