Dravidian languages

Dravidian
Geographic
distribution:		 South Asia, mostly South India
Linguistic classification: One of the world's primary language families
Proto-language: Proto-Dravidian
Subdivisions:
  • Northern
  • Central
  • Southern
ISO 639-2 / 5: dra
Linguasphere: 49= (phylozone)
Glottolog: drav1251[1]

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Distribution of subgroups of Dravidian languages:

  North
  Central
  South-Central
  South

The Dravidian languages are a language family spoken mainly in southern India and parts of eastern and central India as well as in northeastern Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and overseas in other countries such as Malaysia and Singapore. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, and Kannada. There are also small groups of Dravidian-speaking scheduled tribes, who live beyond the mainstream communities, such as the Kurukh and Gond tribes.[2] It is often considered that Dravidian languages are native to India.[3] Epigraphically the Dravidian languages have been attested since the 2nd century BCE. Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal.

Dravidian place-names along the northwest coast, in Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, and to a lesser extent in Sindh, as well as Dravidian grammatical influence such as clusivity in the Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Marwari, and to a lesser extent Sindhi languages, suggest that Dravidian languages were once spoken more widely across the Indian subcontinent.[4][5]

Dravidian studies

The existence of the Dravidian language family was first suggested in 1816 by Alexander D. Campbell in his A Grammar of the Teloogoo Language, in which he and Francis W. Ellis argued that Telugu and Tamil were descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor.[6] However, it was not until 1856 that Robert Caldwell published his Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages, which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established it as one of the major language groups of the world. Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa.[7] In his own words, Caldwell says,

The word I have chosen is 'Dravidian', from Drāviḍa, the adjectival form of Draviḍa. This term, it is true, has sometimes been used, and is still sometimes used, in almost as restricted a sense as that of Tamil itself, so that though on the whole it is the best term I can find, I admit it is not perfectly free from ambiguity. It is a term which has already been used more or less distinctively by Sanskrit philologists, as a generic appellation for the South Indian people and their languages, and it is the only single term they ever seem to have used in this manner. I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it.[8]

The 1961 publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau was a landmark event in Dravidian linguistics.

Origin of the word drāviḍa

As for the origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa itself there have been various theories proposed. Basically the theories are about the direction of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa.

There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil (Dravida → Dramila → Tamizha or Tamil). Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila (in Daṇḍin's Sanskrit work Avanisundarīkathā) damiḷa (found in Ceylonese chronicle Mahavamsa) and then goes on to say, "The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of dr(a/ā)viḍa " and "... tamiḷ < tamiẓ ...whereby the further development might have been *tamiẓ > *damiḷ > damiḷa- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, 'hypercorrect' (or perhaps analogical) -r-, into dr(a/ā)viḍa. The -m-/-v- alternation is a common enough phenomenon in Dravidian phonology"[9] Zvelebil in his earlier treatise states, "It is obvious that the Sanskrit dr(a/ā)viḍa, Pali damila, damiḷo and Prakrit d(a/ā)viḍa are all etymologically connected with tamiẓ" and further remarks "The r in tamiẓ → dr(a/ā)viḍa is a hypercorrect insertion, cf. an analogical case of DED 1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu. kangu "areca nut": Skt. kramu(ka)."[10]

Further, another Dravidian linguist Bhadriraju Krishnamurti in his book Dravidian Languages states,[11]

Joseph (1989: IJDL 18.2:134-42) gives extensive references to the use of the term draviḍa, dramila first as the name of a people, then of a country. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite dameḍa-, damela- denoting Tamil merchants. Early Buddhist and Jaina sources used damiḷa- to refer to a people of south India (presumably Tamil); damilaraṭṭha- was a southern non-Aryan country; dramiḷa-, dramiḍa, and draviḍa- were used as variants to designate a country in the south (Bṛhatsamhita-, Kādambarī, Daśakumāracarita-, fourth to seventh centuries CE) (1989: 134–138). It appears that damiḷa- was older than draviḍa- which could be its Sanskritization.

Based on what Krishnamurti states referring to a scholarly paper published in the International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, the Sanskrit word draviḍa itself is later than damiḷa since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r- (damiḷa, dameḍa-, damela- etc.).

The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of "collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karṇāṭakas, Gurjaras, Tailaṅgas, and Mahārāṣṭras".[12]

Classification

The Dravidian languages form a close-knit family – much more closely related than, say, the Indo-European languages. There is reasonable agreement on how they are related to each other. Most scholars agree on four groups: North, Central (Kolami–Parji), South-Central (Telugu–Kui) and South Dravidian. Earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a valid subgroup, splitting it into Northeast (Kurukh–Malto) and Northwest (Brahui).[13]

The classification below follows Krishnamurti in grouping South-Central and South Dravidian.[14] Languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface.

Dravidian 
 Southern 
 South
 (Tamil–Tulu) 
 Tamil–Kannada 


Tamil

Malayalam



 Kodagu 

Kodava

Kurumba

Kota

Toda



 Kannada–Badaga 

Kannada

Badaga




 Tulu 

Koraga

Tulu (incl. Bellari?)

Kudiya




 South-Central 
 (Telugu–Kui) 
 Gondi–Kui 
 Gondi 

Gondi

Madiya

Muria

Pardhan

Nagarchal

Khirwar

Konda

Mukha-Dora

Kui

Kuvi

Koya

Manda

Pengo




 Telugu 

Telugu

Chenchu





 Central 
 (Kolami–Parji) 


Naiki

Kolami

Ollari (Gadaba)

Duruwa




 Northern 
 Kurukh–Malto 

Kurukh (Oraon, Kisan)


 Malto 

Kumarbhag Paharia

Sauria Paharia

Brahui




In addition, Ethnologue lists several unclassified Dravidian languages: Allar, Bazigar, Bharia, Malankuravan (possibly a dialect of Malayalam), Vishavan, as well as the otherwise unclassified Southern Dravidian languages Mala Malasar, Malasar, Thachanadan, Ullatan, Kalanadi, Kumbaran, Kunduvadi, Kurichiya, Attapady Kurumba, Muduga, Pathiya and Wayanad Chetti to Tamil-Kannada.

Distribution

About 24% of India's population spoke Dravidian languages in 1981.[15] This proportion is slowly falling due to higher birth rates in the Indo-Aryan-speaking Ganges Plain and in 2001 census it was around 21.5% or 220 millions of total population of 1,028,610,328[16] and it would be much less at present as per the trend.

Language Classification Number of speakers Location
Tamil South 70,000,000 Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Pondicherry and Karaikkal districts of Puducherry, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius
Malayalam South 38,000,000 Kerala, Lakshadweep, Mahe district of Puducherry, Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu
Irula South 4,500 Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu & Kerala)
Kanikkaran South 19,000 Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Allar South 300 Kerala
Kodava South 300,000 Karnataka (Kodagu District)
Kurumba South 220,000 Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka)
Kota South 900 Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu)
Toda South 1,100 Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka)
Kannada South 38,000,000 Karnataka, Kasaragod district of Kerala and the Solapur and Sangli districts of Maharashtra
Badaga South 400,000 Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu)
Koraga South 14,000 Tulu Nadu (Karnataka, Kerala)
Tulu South 2,000,000 Tulu Nadu (Karnataka, Kerala)
Beary Bashe/Byari South 1,500,000 Tulu Nadu (Karnataka, Kerala)
Telugu South-Central 85,000,000 Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, the Yanam district of Puducherry, the Bellary district of Karnataka, the Koraput, Rayagada, Gajapati, and Ganjam districts of Orissa, the Chandrapur district of Maharashtra, and the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh
Gondi South-Central 2,000,000 Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
Maria (2 languages) South-Central 360,000 Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra
Muria (3 languages) South-Central 1,000,000 Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha
Pardhan South-Central 117,000 Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
Nagarchal South-Central 7,000 Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra
Konda South-Central 20,000 Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
Kui South-Central 700,000 Odisha
Kuvi South-Central 350,000 Odisha
Khoya South-Central 330,000 Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
Manda South-Central 4,000 Odisha
Pengo South-Central 350,000 Odisha
Chenchu South-Central 26,000 Andhra Pradesh
Naiki Central 10,000 Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
Kolami Central 115,000 Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
Ollari/Gadaba (2 languages) Central 23,000 Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
Duruwa Central 80,000 Chhattisgarh
Kurukh Northern 2,100,000 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal
Kumarbhag Paharia Northern 18,000 Jharkhand, West Bengal
Sauria Paharia Northern 120,000 Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal
Brahui Northern 4,200,000 Balochistan

History

The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation are unclear, partially due to the lack of comparative linguistic research into the Dravidian languages.

Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, nothing definite is known about the ancient domain of the Dravidian parent speech. The Brahui, Kurukh and Malto have myths about external origins.[17] The Kurukh have traditionally claimed to be from the Deccan Peninsula,[18] more specifically Karnataka. The same tradition has existed of the Brahui.[19][20] They call themselves immigrants.[21] Many scholars hold this same view of the Brahui[22] such as L. H. Horace Perera and M. Ratnasabapathy.[23]

Proto-Dravidian is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, Proto South-Central Dravidian and Proto-South Dravidian around 500 BCE, although some linguists have argued that the degree of differentiation between the sub-families points to an earlier split.

Relationship to other language families

Language families in South Asia

Despite many proposals, scholars have not shown a systematic relationship between the Dravidian languages and any other language family. Nonetheless, while there are no readily detectable genealogical connections, Dravidian shares strong areal features with the Indo-Aryan languages, which have been attributed to a substratum influence from Dravidian.

The earliest known Dravidian inscriptions are 76 Old Tamil inscriptions on cave walls in Madurai and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu, dating from the 2nd century BCE.[24]

Proposed larger groupings

The Dravidian family has defied all of the attempts to show a connection with other languages, including Indo-European, Hurrian, Basque, Sumerian, and Korean. Comparisons have been made not just with the other language families of the Indian subcontinent (Indo-European, Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and Nihali), but with all typologically similar language families of the Old World.

Dravidian languages display typological similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting to some a prolonged period of contact in the past.[25] This idea is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell,[26] Thomas Burrow,[27] Kamil Zvelebil,[28] and Mikhail Andronov.[29] This hyphothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages,[30] and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti.[31]

Dravidian is one of the primary language families in the Nostratic proposal, which would link most languages in North Africa, Europe and Western Asia into a family with its origins in the Fertile Crescent sometime between the last Ice Age and the emergence of proto-Indo-European 4–6 thousand years BCE. However, the general consensus is that such deep connections are not, or not yet, demonstrable.

On a less ambitious scale, McAlpin (1975) proposed linking Dravidian languages with the ancient Elamite language of what is now southwestern Iran. However, despite decades of research, this Elamo-Dravidian language family has not been demonstrated to the satisfaction of other historical linguists.

Dravidian substratum influence on Sanskrit

Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages.[32] Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.[33]

Vedic Sanskrit has retroflex consonants (ṭ/ḍ, ṇ) with about 88 words in the Rigveda having unconditioned retroflexes.[34][35] Some sample words are Iṭanta, Kaṇva,śakaṭī, kevaṭa, puṇya and maṇḍūka. Since other Indo-European languages, including other Indo-Iranian languages, lack retroflex consonants, their presence in Indo-Aryan is often cited as evidence of substrate influence from close contact of the Vedic speakers with speakers of a foreign language family rich in retroflex consonants.[34][35] The Dravidian family is a serious candidate since it is rich in retroflex phonemes reconstructible back to the Proto-Dravidian stage.[36][37][38]

In addition, a number of grammatical features of Vedic Sanskrit not found in its sister Avestan language appear to have been borrowed from Dravidian languages. These include the gerund, which has the same function as in Dravidian, and the quotative marker iti.[39]

Some linguists explain this asymmetrical borrowing by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan languages were built on a Dravidian substratum.[40][41] These scholars argue that the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Indic is language shift, that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages.[42] Although each of the innovative traits in Indic could be accounted for by internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once; moreover, it accounts for the several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.[43]

The Brahui population of Balochistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.[44][45][41] However it has been argued that the absence of any Old Iranian (Avestan) loanwords in Brahui suggests that the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from central India less than 1000 years ago. The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a western Iranian language like Kurdish, and arrived in the area from the west only around 1000 CE.[46] Sound changes shared with Kurukh and Malto also suggest that Brahui was originally spoken near them in central India.[47]

Grammar

The most characteristic grammatical features of Dravidian languages are:[28]

Phonology

Dravidian languages are noted for the lack of distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops. While some Dravidian languages have accepted large numbers of loan words from Sanskrit and other Indo-Iranian languages in addition to their already vast vocabulary, in which the orthography shows distinctions in voice and aspiration, the words are pronounced in Dravidian according to different rules of phonology and phonotactics: aspiration of plosives is generally absent, regardless of the spelling of the word. This is not a universal phenomenon and is generally avoided in formal or careful speech, especially when reciting.

For instance, Tamil does not distinguish between voiced and voiceless stops. In fact, the Tamil alphabet lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops.

Dravidian languages are also characterized by a three-way distinction between dental, alveolar, and retroflex places of articulation as well as large numbers of liquids.

Proto-Dravidian

Proto-Dravidian had five short and long vowels: *a, *ā, *i, *ī, *u, *ū, *e, *ē, *o, *ō. There were no diphthongs; ai and au are treated as *ay and *av (or *aw).[48][37][49] The five-vowel system is largely preserved in the descendent subgroups.[50]

The following consonantal phonemes are reconstructed:[36][37][51]

Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosives *p *t *ṯ *ṭ *c *k
Nasals *m *n *ṉ (??) *ṇ *ñ
Fricatives (*H)
Flap/Rhotics *r *ẓ (ḻ, r̤)
Lateral *l *ḷ
Glides *w [v] *y

Words starting with vowels

A substantial number of words also begin and end with vowels, which helps the languages' agglutinative property.

karanu (cry), elumbu (bone), athu (that), avide (there), ithu (this), illai (no, absent)

adu-idil-illai (adu = that, idu = this, il= suffix form of "in", illai = absent, so → that-this-in-absent → that-in this-absent → that is absent in this)

Numerals

The numerals from 1 to 10 in various Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages (here exemplified by Hindi, Sanskrit and Marathi).

Number Tamil Kannada Malayalam Tulu Telugu Kodava Kolami Kurukh Brahui Proto-Dravidian Hindi Sanskrit Marathi
1 oṉdru ondu onnu onji okaṭi ond okkod oṇṭa asiṭ *onṯu(1) ek éka ek
2 iraṇdu eraḍu raṇdu raḍḍ renḍu danḍ irāṭ indiŋ irāṭ *iru(2) do dvi don
3 mūṉdṛu mūṟu mūnnu mūji mūḍu mūṉd mūndiŋ mūnd musiṭ *muC teen tri teen
4 nāṉgu nālku nālu nāl nālugu nāl nāliŋ nākh čār (II) *nān char catúr chār
5 ainthu aidu añchu ayN ayidu añji ayd 3 pancē (II) panč (II) *cayN panch pañca pātc
6 āṟu āṟu āṟu āji āṟu ār ār 3 soyyē (II) šaš (II) *caṟu che ṣáṣ sahā
7 ēzhu ēlu ēzhu yēl ēḍu ēḻ ēḍ 3 sattē (II) haft (II) *ēẓ sat saptá sāt
8 eṭṭu eṇṭu eṭṭu edma enimidi eṭṭ enumadī 3 aṭṭhē (II) hašt (II) *eṭṭu aanth aṣṭá āṭh
9 oṉpathu ombattu oṉpatu ormba tommidi oiymbad tomdī 3 naiṃyē (II) nōh (II) *toḷ nau náva nau
10 patthu hattu pathu patt padi patt padī 3 dassē (II) dah (II) *pat(tu) das dasa dahā
  1. This is the same as the word for another form of the number one in Tamil and Malayalam. This is used as an indefinite article meaning "a" and also when the number is an adjective followed by a noun (as in "one person") as opposed to when it is a noun (as in "How many are there?" "One").
  2. This is still found in compound words, and has taken on a meaning of "double" in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. For example, irupatu (20, literally meaning "double-ten"), iravai (20 in Telugu), or "iraṭṭi" ("double") or Iruvar (meaning two people) (in Tamil).
  3. The word tondu was also used to refer to the number nine in ancient sankam texts but was later completely replaced by the word onpadu.
  4. The Proto-Dravidian word "tol" is still used in Tamil to denote numbers such as 90, "thonnooru".

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Dravidian". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
  2. ↑ West, Barbara A. (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 713. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
  3. ↑ Ancient India: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200, by Burjor Avari, url=, Routledge
  4. ↑ Erdosy (1995), p. 271.
  5. ↑ Edwin Bryant, Laurie L. Patton (2005), The Indo-Aryan controversy: evidence and inference in Indian history, p. 254
  6. ↑ Sreekumar (2009).
  7. ↑ Zvelebil (1990), p. xx.
  8. ↑ Caldwell (1856), p. 4.
  9. ↑ Zvelebil (1990), p. xxi.
  10. ↑ Zvelebil (1975), p. 53.
  11. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 2, footnote 2.
  12. ↑ Sanskrit, Tamil and Pahlavi Dictionaries
  13. ↑ Ruhlen (1991), pp. 138–141.
  14. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 21.
  15. ↑ Ishtiaq, M. (1999). Language Shifts Among the Scheduled Tribes in India: A Geographical Study. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9788120816176. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
  16. ↑ Comparative Speaker's Strength of Scheduled Languages -1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001, Census of India, 1991
  17. ↑ P. 83 The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate By Edwin Bryant
  18. ↑ P. 18 The Orāons of Chōtā Nāgpur: their history, economic life, and social organization. by Sarat Chandra Roy, Rai Bahadur; Alfred C Haddon
  19. ↑ P. 12 Origin and Spread of the Tamils By V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar
  20. ↑ P. 32 Ideology and status of Sanskrit : contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language by Jan E M Houben
  21. ↑ P. 45 The Brahui language, an old Dravidian language spoken in parts of Baluchistan and Sind by Sir Denys Bray
  22. ↑ Ancient India; Culture and Thought By M. L. Bhagi
  23. ↑ P. 23 Ceylon & Indian History from Early Times to 1505 A. D. By L. H. Horace Perera, M. Ratnasabapathy
  24. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 22.
  25. ↑ Tyler, Stephen (1968), "Dravidian and Uralian: the lexical evidence". Language 44:4. 798–812
  26. ↑ Webb, Edward (1860), "Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar", Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 7. 271–298.
  27. ↑ Burrow, T. (1944) "Dravidian Studies IV: The Body in Dravidian and Uralian". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 11:2. 328–356.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Zvelebil, Kamal (2006). Dravidian Languages. In Encyclopædia Britannica (DVD edition).
  29. ↑ Andronov, Mikhail S. (1971), "Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian-Uralian Parallels: A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families". Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies Madras. 267–277.
  30. ↑ Zvelebil, Kamal (1970), Comparative Dravidian Phonology Mouton, The Hauge. at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the theory
  31. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 43.
  32. ↑ "Dravidian languages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 Jun. 2008
  33. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 6.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Kuiper (1991).
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Witzel (1999).
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Subrahmanyam (1983), p. 40.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Zvelebil (1990).
  38. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 36.
  39. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), pp. 36–37.
  40. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), pp. 40–41.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Trask (2000), p. 97.
  42. ↑ Erdosy (1995), p. 18.
  43. ↑ Thomason & Kaufman (1988), pp. 141–144.
  44. ↑ Mallory (1989), p. 44.
  45. ↑ Elst (1999), p. 146.
  46. ↑ Elfenbein, Josef (1987). "A periplus of the 'Brahui problem'". Studia Iranica 16 (2): 215–233. doi:10.2143/SI.16.2.2014604.
  47. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), pp. 27, 142.
  48. ↑ Subrahmanyam (1983).
  49. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 90.
  50. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 48.
  51. ↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 91.

References

External links