Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine

The doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses have developed since publication of The Watchtower magazine began in 1879. Early doctrines were based on interpretations of the Bible by Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society founder Charles Taze Russell, then added to, altered or discarded by his successors, Joseph Rutherford and Nathan Knorr. Since 1976, doctrinal changes have been made at closed meetings of the religion's Governing Body,[1] whose decisions are described as "God's progressive revelations"[2] to the faithful and discreet slave.[3][4] These teachings are disseminated through The Watchtower, and at conventions and congregation meetings. Most members of the religion outside the Governing Body play no role in the development of doctrines[5] and are expected to adhere to all those decided at the Brooklyn headquarters.[6][7][8] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught to welcome changes to their religion's doctrine, regarding such "adjustments" as "new light" or "new understanding" from God and proving that they are on the "path of the righteous".[9][10]

Method of doctrinal development

Some core beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses have remained unchanged throughout the religion's history. Certain doctrines, particularly relating to biblical chronology, were based on what Russell called a "venerable tradition" that he conceded was not directly confirmed by facts or scripture, but "based on faith".[11][12] Watch Tower publications claim that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose.[13][14][15][16] Watch Tower literature has suggested such enlightenment results from the application of reason and study,[17] the guidance of holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels.[18] Rutherford spoke of spiritual "lightning flashes in the temple",[19] the Society claims its doctrine of the "great crowd" and "other sheep" were "revealed" to "God’s earthly servants" in 1935,[20][21] and Witness literature has also described sudden changes in doctrines as "flashes of light" given by God through his holy spirit.[22] A 1930 publication claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to The Watchtower,[23][24] although The Watchtower told Witnesses it was not necessary for them to understand how this took place.[25] A 1973 policy change to disfellowship tobacco users was explained as a decision that "Jehovah has brought to the attention of his 'holy' people".[26]

Watch Tower publications often cite Proverbs 4:18, "The path of the righteous ones is like the bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until the day is firmly established" (NWT) when explaining the need to change doctrines.[27] The organization's earlier literature has included claims that its predictions about dates such as 1925 were "indisputable",[28] "absolutely and unqualifiedly correct"[29] and bearing "the stamp of approval of Almighty God",[29] but the Governing Body which was established later says its teachings are neither infallibile nor divinely inspired.[30][31][32]

Robert Crompton, author of a book on Watch Tower eschatology, has noted that it is difficult to trace the development of doctrines because explicit changes are often not identified in Jehovah's Witness literature, leaving readers to assume which details have been superseded.[33] Edmund C. Gruss, a critic of the religion, found that a 1943 Watch Tower Society publication that established a new creation chronology, changing the date of Adam's creation by 100 years, made no mention of the old time reckoning, which had previously been said to be "correct beyond a doubt".[34]

Watch Tower Society founding doctrines

From the first issue of Zion's Watch Tower in July 1879, Russell began publicising a number of doctrines, many of them drawn from Adventist teachings, including the atonement, resurrection, the soul, the invisible parousia (or return) of Christ[35] and God's "plan of the ages".[36] Russell taught that mankind was to be redeemed not from torment but from the death penalty that had been imposed on Adam and subsequently passed on to all his descendants. He wrote that Christ's "ransom for all" mentioned in 1 Timothy 2:5 would be applied to all humankind rather than just the righteously inclined.[37][38] Christ's death provided the ransom payment to free humans from death.[39] He believed an elect few would be resurrected to serve as a heavenly priesthood and all humans who had died would be resurrected to earth, which would be restored to Edenic perfection.[40]

Millennialist teachings

The dominant and central theme of Russell's teachings concerned the timing, nature and purpose of Christ's second coming.[41] His beliefs on the timing of Christ's Advent and God's overarching plan for humans had gained their first exposure in Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World, a book he paid Millerite Adventist Nelson H. Barbour to write in 1877.[42] Russell and Barbour parted company in 1879 and from 1886 Russell began writing his own books that further developed his Millennialist beliefs.

Russell's doctrines on the Millennium followed a tradition of interpretation of Scripture that had begun in the 1st century, when Jewish rabbis sought to identify the due time for the appearance of the Messiah by interpreting the prophecy of the 70 weeks of years of Daniel 9:24-27. Their approach to prophetic interpretation was based on the Day-year principle, drawn from Ezekiel 4 and Numbers 14, in which one day in prophecy represents one year in fulfillment.[43] Such teachings were revived and popularised in the early 19th century by American Adventist preacher William Miller.

Russell also incorporated Miller's teaching of types and antitypes, in which an actual historical situation (the type) prefigures a corresponding situation (the antitype),[44] as well as a modified version of John Nelson Darby's teachings on dispensationalism. Russell modified Darby's teachings to create his own doctrine of parallel dispensations, in which the timing of certain events in the Jewish age are a prophetic indication of corresponding events at the close of the Gospel age.[45] He believed the internal harmony of his "plan of the ages" proved its validity beyond reasonable doubt, noting that a change of just one year would destroy the parallelisms,[46] and found further confirmation in internal measurements of the Great Pyramid of Giza, which he viewed as a divinely built supporting witness to the Bible.[47][48]

The main points of his doctrines on Bible chronology were:

Timeline of doctrinal changes

Doctrines unchanged since 1879

1880–1889

1890–1899

1900–1909

1910–1919

1920–1929

1930–1939

1940–1949

1950–1959

1960–1969

1970–1979

1980–1989

1990-1999

2000–2009

2010–2019

Criticism

Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz and Sociology lecturer Andrew Holden have pointed out that doctrinesincluding those relating to sexual behaviour in marriage and the "superior authorities" of Romans 13:4have sometimes been altered, only to revert to those held decades earlier.[273] Holden, author of a major ethnographic study on the religion, commented: "It could be that many Witnesses have not yet been in the organisation long enough to realise that 'new lights' have a habit of growing dimmer, while old ones are switched back on!"[274] In his study of the Witnesses and their history, Tony Wills has suggested that when third president Nathan H. Knorr altered major doctrines established by his predecessor, J. F. Rutherford, he was returning the Witnesses to many of Russell's teachings. He asked: "How can the Society harmonize this circular development with the claimed progressive development?"[275]

In testimony at a 1954 court case in Scotland, senior Watch Tower Society figures admitted that although doctrines were subject to change if they were later regarded as erroneous, all Witnesses were required to accept current teachings or risk expulsion. Under cross-examination, Fred Franz, then vice president of the Watch Tower Society, conceded a Witness could be disfellowshipped and shunned for "causing trouble" over a belief they held that was contrary to Society teaching but subsequently embraced by the religion.[276] Society lawyer Hayden G. Covington told the court that although the Society had for decades published a "false prophecy ... a false statement" about the date of Christ's Second Coming, members of the religion had been required to accept it and any who had rejected it would have been expelled. He explained: "You must understand we must have unity, we cannot have disunity with a lot of people going every way."[276]

See also

References

  1. Franz 2002, p. 106
  2. "Jehovah, the God of Progressive Revelation", Watchtower, June 15, 1964, page 365,"The abundance of spiritual food and the amazing details of Jehovah’s purposes that have been revealed to Jehovah’s anointed witnesses are clear evidence that they are the ones mentioned by Jesus when he foretold a 'faithful and discreet slave' class that would be used to dispense God’s progressive revelations in these last days ... How thankful we should be for the provision God has made of this slave class, the modern spiritual remnant, as they faithfully dispense the revealed truths of Jehovah! ... Jehovah’s faithful witnesses have been progressively brought to an understanding of Jehovah’s purposes, which are clearer now than ever before in history."
  3. "Seek God's guidance in all things", The Watchtower, April 15, 2008, page 11.
  4. "How the Governing Body Is Organized", The Watchtower, May 15, 2008, page 29.
  5. Franz 2007, pp. 152–164
  6. Holden 2002, pp. 22, 10, 158, 163
  7. "The Godly Qualities of Love and Hate". The Watchtower, 15 July 1974, "Christians have implicit trust in their heavenly Father; they do not question what he tells them through his written Word and organization."
  8. "Jehovah’s Theocratic Organization Today", The Watchtower, February 1, 1952, page 79, "Are we assigned as individuals to bring forth the food for the spiritual table? No? Then let us not try to take over the slave’s duties. We should eat and digest and assimilate what is set before us, without shying away from parts of the food because it may not suit the fancy of our mental taste. The truths we are to publish are the ones provided through the discreet-slave organization, not some personal opinions contrary to what the slave has provided as timely food. Jehovah and Christ direct and correct the slave as needed, not we as individuals. If we do not see a point at first we should keep trying to grasp it, rather than opposing and rejecting it and presumptuously taking the position that we are more likely to be right than the discreet slave. We should meekly go along with the Lord’s theocratic organization and wait for further clarification ... Theocratic ones will appreciate the Lord’s visible organization and not be so foolish as to pit against Jehovah’s channel their own human reasoning and sentiment and personal feelings."
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 Osamu Muramoto, "Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses, part 1", Journal of Medical Ethics, August 1998, Vol 24, Issue 4, page 223-230.
  10. "The Path of the Righteous Does Keep Getting Brighter", The Watchtower, December 1, 1981, pages 26-31.
  11. The Time is At Hand, By C. T. Russell, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1891, page B39, "And though the Bible contains no direct statement that the seventh thousand will be the epoch of Christ's reign, the great Sabbath Day of restitution to the world, yet the venerable tradition is not without a reasonable foundation.".
  12. Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, October 1, 1907, R4067: page 294, "Can we feel absolutely sure that the Chronology set forth in the DAWN-STUDIES is correct? ...we have never claimed our calculations to be infallibly correct; we have never claimed that they were knowledge, nor based upon indisputable evidence, facts, knowledge; our claim has always been that they are based on faith. We have set forth the evidences as plainly as possible and stated the conclusions of faith we draw from them, and have invited others to accept as much or as little of them as their hearts and heads could endorse. ...Possibly some who have read the DAWNS have presented our conclusions more strongly than we; but if so that is their own responsibility."
  13. "Impart God’s Progressive Revelation to Mankind", The Watchtower, March 1, 1965, p. 158-159
  14. Penton 1997, pp. 165–171
  15. "Flashes of Light—Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 15.
  16. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 709
  17. Penton 1997, p. 165
  18. J. F. Rutherford, Preparation, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1933, page 64, 67, "Enlightenment proceeds from Jehovah by and through Christ Jesus and is given to the faithful anointed on earth at the temple, and brings great peace and consolation to them. Again Zechariah talked with the angel of the Lord, which shows that the remnant are instructed by the angels of the Lord. The remnant do not hear audible sounds, because such is not necessary. Jehovah has provided his own good way to convey thoughts to the minds of his anointed ones ... Those of the remnant, being honest and true, must say, We do not know; and the Lord enlightens them, sending his angels for that very purpose."
  19. Watchtower 1933, pages 53, 62, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 165.
  20. Life Everlasting in Freedom in the Sons of God Watchtower Society, 1966, page 149, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 165.
  21. "The Things Revealed Belong to Us", The Watchtower, May 15, 1986, pages 10-15, "In 1925 God’s earthly servants became possessors of an accurate understanding... In 1932 their understanding was deepened still further. Jehovah revealed that the prophecies related ...to spiritual Israel, the Christian congregation. (Romans 2:28, 29) Then, in 1935 a corrected understanding of John’s vision of the “great crowd” in Revelation chapter 7 opened the eyes of anointed ones to the huge gathering work that still lay ahead of them.".
  22. "Flashes of Light - Great and Small", Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 17, 18.
  23. Rutherford 1930, p. 64
  24. Rutherford 1930, p. 106
  25. Watchtower, December 1, 1933, page 364, "Without doubt these angels are delegated by the Lord to convey his instructions to the members of his organization on earth. Just how this is done is not necessary for us to understand."
  26. "You Must Be Holy Because Jehovah Is Holy", Watchtower, February 15, 1976, page 123
  27. "Keep in Step With Jehovah’s Organization", Watchtower, January 15, 2001, page 18.
  28. Watch Tower, November 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 228.
  29. 29.0 29.1 Watch Tower, July 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 226.
  30. "To Whom Shall We Go but Jesus Christ?", The Watchtower, March 1, 1979, pages 23-24.
  31. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, October 15, 1954, page 638.
  32. "Name and Purpose of The Watchtower", The Watchtower, August 15, 1950, page 263.
  33. Crompton 1996, p. 115
  34. Edmund C. Gruss, The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, 1972, page 64. Gruss based his comments on The Truth Shall Make You Free, 1943, pages 141-52.
  35. "The Sign of His Presence", Zion's Watch Tower, May 1880.
  36. Penton 1997, p. 26
  37. Wills 2006, p. 5
  38. "If Death Ends All", Zion's Watch Tower, July 1879.
  39. "Why Did Christ Die?", Zion's Watch Tower, November 1879.
  40. "The Royal Priesthood", "If Death Ends All", Zion's Watch Tower, July 1879.
  41. Rogerson 1969, p. 17
  42. Wills 2006, p. 9
  43. Crompton 1996, p. 17
  44. Crompton 1996, p. 21
  45. Crompton 1996, pp. 43–48,144
  46. Russell 1889, pp. 243–244
  47. Wills 2006, p. 47
  48. 48.0 48.1 Russell 1891, pp. 313–376
  49. Crompton 1996, pp. 36–37
  50. Russell 1889, pp. 74–102
  51. Crompton 1996, pp. 37–39
  52. Miller's chronology pinpointed the start in 1798, according to Crompton (pg 23).
  53. Crompton 1996, p. 21
  54. Russell 1891, pp. 23–60
  55. Crompton 1996, p. 23
  56. Russell 1891, p. 69
  57. Crompton 1996, p. 25
  58. Russell 1889, p. 177
  59. Crompton 1996, pp. 39–41
  60. 2 Peter 3:8.
  61. Crompton 1996, p. 25
  62. 62.0 62.1 Russell 1889, p. 53
  63. Russell 1891, p. 127,128
  64. Russell 1889, p. 213
  65. Russell's belief in a "repetition" or doubling of iniquity was drawn from Jeremiah 16:18. See The Time Is At Hand, pg 218.
  66. Russell 1889, p. 221
  67. Russell 1889, p. 235
  68. Russell 1889, pp. 105, 150, 222, 234
  69. Luke 3:15.
  70. Crompton 1996, p. 47
  71. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 1, 1908, page 2.
  72. Franz 2007, p. 492
  73. Russell 1886, pp. 149–172
  74. Charles Taze Russell, "Haverst Gatherings and Siftings", Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, p. 3821 (reprint).
  75. 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 36.
  76. "Who Can Read the Sign Aright?", Watchtower, February 1, 1985, page 10.
  77. Rogerson, Alan (1969), Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, Constable & Co, London, pp. 17–23, ISBN 978-0-09-455940-0
  78. Barbour 1877, pp. 67–77
  79. Penton 1997, p. 20
  80. Russell 1889, pp. 38, 39
  81. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, August 1879, Reprints 20, page 3.
  82. C. T. Russell, The Object and Manner of Our Lord's Return, 1877.
  83. The Watch Tower, July 1, 1879, p. 7 (reprint).
  84. "Speak the Pure Language and Live Forever!", The Watchtower, May 1, 1991, page 17, "In 1879...a small Bible-study group led by Charles Taze Russell was meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. They had become certain that Jesus’ second coming...would restore Paradise on earth, with eternal life for obedient humans."
  85. Russell, Charles (1 March 1906). Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence "Views From the Watch Tower". Allegheny, PA: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. pp. 68–69 (p.3731–3732 reprint). Then came the suggestion that all the larger forms of being were mere evolutions from lower to higher. With this thought the learned of this world have been wrestling for the past fifty years, shaking the foundations of faith in the Bible for millions. For if the Bible be true this theory is false as respects man's origin. Instead of further evolution being our salvation the Bible points us to our fall, to the redemption accomplished for the world by the Son of God, and to the coming deliverance of the groaning creation from sin and its death penalty. Only those who trust the Bible record are safe from the blighting influence of this evolution error.
  86. C. T. Russell, The Divine Plan of the Ages, 1886, study IX, page 172, "These things are clearly taught in the Scriptures, from beginning to end, and are in direct opposition to the Evolution theory; or, rather, such "babblings of science, falsely so called," are in violent and irreconcilable conflict with the Word of God."
  87. Barbour 1877, pp. 6, 42
  88. Barbour 1877, p. 42
  89. Barbour 1877, p. 165
  90. Barbour 1877, p. 48,49
  91. Watch Tower, January 1880, Watch Tower Reprints page 64 As Retrieved 2009-09-23, page 2
  92. Watch Tower, April 1881, Watch Tower Reprints page 207 As Retrieved 2009-09-23, page 7, "And why did they thus keep the people in ignorance? Because they feared that if people knew this, the only text which gives even a shadow of support to the doctrine of the TRINITY, to be an interpolation to support a papal error, they might renounce the error".
  93. Zion's Watch Tower, September 1881, Watch Tower Reprints page 278 As Retrieved 2009-09-23, page 132, "As to the motives and errors which may have led to these unwarranted interpolations of the [Bible] text, we may be able to offer a suggestion, viz., the last mentioned (1 John 5:7,8) was probably intended to give authority and sanction to the doctrine of the "Trinity."
  94. Watch Tower, October 1881, Watch Tower Reprints page 290 As Retrieved 2009-09-23, page 4, ""He gave his only begotten Son." This phraseology brings us into conflict with an old Babylonian theory, viz.: Trinitarianism. If that doctrine is true, how could there be any Son to give? A begotten Son, too? Impossible. If these three are one, did God send himself? And how could Jesus say: "My Father is greater than I." John 14:28. [emphasis retained from original]"
  95. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, July 1882, Reprints 370, page 3.
  96. Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, p. 343, note 64, "Barbour and Paton were trinitarians ... although Henry Grew and George Stetson, two others who had influenced him, were non–trinitarians, Russell did not take a stand on the matter, at least publicly, until after his split with Paton."
  97. Jehovah's Witnesses, Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, page 120.
  98. N. H. Barbour, C. T. Russell, Three Worlds, 1877, page 57, "I am beginning to think Age-to-come people, and many others among pre-millennialists, do not believe in anything of a spiritual nature, or have the most remote comprehension of things of that order; either that the saint is raised 'a spiritual body,' or in the existence of spiritual beings, or even of the Holy Spirit itself. I know one class of age-to-come believers, the Christadelphians, do not. The Holy Spirit, say they, is but a principle, or element of power, and not an intelligence. It is nothing more nor less than 'electricity;' is taught in one of their books, now before me. What wonder they discern only a fleshly future."
  99. J. H. Paton, Day Dawn, A.D. Jones, 1880, page 225, 229, "The work of the Holy Spirit is one of the most important elements in the plan of revelation and salvation. He is always spoken of by the Saviour as a Person, and is called the " Spirit of truth." We will follow the Saviour's example in this, though we do not propose to deal with the philosophy of that fact. He being the Spirit of truth, it is His mission to make known the truth."
  100. Zion's Watch Tower, July 1880, page 8, "But the Spirit cannot resign his work until it is complete."
  101. Zion's Watch Tower, August 1880, page 4, "Then let the Spirit use his sword upon others as he may see fit to humble them, strip them of pride, and bring them to the rock that is higher than they."
  102. Zion's Watch Tower, November 1880, page 8, "The Spirit is still our leader and instructor. He is now telling us of Him who comes by way of unseen presence that He is here present."
  103. Zion's Watch Tower, March 1881, page 5, "The number three is surprisingly prominent, as the subject opens before us ... We would first call attention to the Divine Three – Father, Son and Holy Spirit – often mentioned in the Bible."
  104. Charles Taze Russell, "Haverst Gatherings and Siftings", Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, p. 3825 (reprint).
  105. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, May 1882, Reprints 356, page 8.
  106. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, September 1882, Reprints 392, page 4.
  107. "The Three Great Covenants", Zion's Watch Tower, March 1880.
  108. "The New Covenant vs the Law Covenant", Zion's Watch Tower, September 1887.
  109. 109.0 109.1 Wills 2006, pp. 63–68
  110. Russell 1891, pp. 38,47–59
  111. Rusell 1891, pp. 239–242
  112. Charles Taze Russell, "Haverst Gatherings and Siftings", Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, p. 3823 (reprint).
  113. 113.0 113.1 Studies in the Scriptures 4. pp. 602603.
  114. Russell 1889, p. 78
  115. "The Outlook - War & Prosperity", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, September 15, 1901 (R2876 page 292)
  116. "Universal Anarchy", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, July 1, 1904 (R3389 page 197)
  117. The New Creation, (Volume VI of Studies in the Scriptures), 1904, page 179: “We have every reason to believe that the definite, fixed number of the elect [chosen anointed ones] is that several times stated in Revelation (7:4; 14:1); namely, 144,000 ‘redeemed from amongst men."
  118. "The Great Company", Zion's Watch Tower, October 15, 1904.
  119. The New Creation, (Volume VI of Studies in the Scriptures), 1904, page 168-170.
  120. Wills 2006, pp. 57, 58
  121. "The Rank of the Ancient Worthies", "The Great Company", Zion's Watch Tower, October 15, 1904.
  122. "Our Advocate, the World's Mediator," Zion's Watch Tower, January 1, 1907.
  123. "The Word Mediator Used Differently,", Watch Tower, January 1909.
  124. Scenario of the Photo-Drama of Creation, ©1914 International Bible Students Association, page 3
  125. "Views from the Watch Tower", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, January 1, 1914 (R5373: page 3)
  126. Russell 1889, p. 101
  127. "Overcome With Wine", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, January 15, 1892 (R1357: page 27)
  128. "What Smiting of the Waters May Mean", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, February 1, 1916 (R5845: page 38)
  129. "The Burning of the Tares", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, September 1, 1916 (R5951: page 265)
  130. The Watch Tower, October 1, 1913, pgs 291-295.
  131. Zion's Watch Tower, April 1, 1916, pages 98-99.
  132. The Watch Tower, December 15, 1919, pg 375.
  133. "The Table of the Great King,", The Watchtower, April 1, 1919, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, pg 181.
  134. Russell 1889, p. 233
  135. Watch Tower, July 1, 1920, page 196.
  136. C. T. Russell, The Battle of Armageddon, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1897, page 568.
  137. "Gospel of the Kingdom", The Watchtower, July 1, 1920, pages 199-200.
  138. "View from the Tower", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, January 15, 1892 (R1354: page 19)
  139. New Heavens and a New Earth, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1953, page 225.
  140. Watch Tower, November 1, 1922, pages 332-337.
  141. 141.0 141.1 Penton 1997, p. 72
  142. "The Keys of the Kingdom and the Great Crowd", Watchtower, October 1, 1971, page 14.
  143. "The Parable of the sheep and goats", The Watchtower, October 15, 1923, pages 307-314.
  144. Wills 2006, p. 113
  145. Watch Tower, October 15, 1923.
  146. Wills 2006, pp. 141, 142
  147. Watch Tower, January 1, 1925.
  148. Rutherford 1930, p. 134
  149. Rutherford 1930, p. 223
  150. Rutherford 1930, p. 251
  151. Zion's Watch Tower, August 1, 1892, page 238.
  152. The Finished Mystery, 1917, pages 256-258. See comment on Rev. 16:16-20.
  153. Watch Tower, March 1, 1925, page 69.
  154. J. F. Rutherford, The Battle of Armageddon, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1889, page 541.
  155. "Restoration of True Religion", Watchtower, March 1, 1954, page 150.
  156. J.F. Rutherford, Deliverance, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1926, pages 268,269.
  157. Russell 1891, p. 306
  158. Watch Tower, June 1, 1927.
  159. Rutherford 1930, p. 226
  160. The Battle of Armageddon (Part IV, "Studies in the Scriptures") by C. T. Russell, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1897, page 613.
  161. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, July 15, 1906, page 215.
  162. Franz 2002, pp. 78–79
  163. Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, pages 68 and 71, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, 2007, page 63.
  164. Watch Tower, January 1, 1927 and February, pages 7, 51-7, as cited by Penton, Apocalypse Delayed.
  165. 165.0 165.1 165.2 "Interesting Questions". The Watchtower: 62. February 15, 1927.
  166. Watchtower, June 15, 1922, page 187, as reproduced by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 225, 226.
  167. Watchtower, 1928, pages 339-45, 355-62, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 170.
  168. "The Prince of Peace", Zion's Watch Tower & Herald of Christ's Presence, December 1, 1904, page 364.
  169. The Golden Age, December 24, 1919, page 215: "Christmas is regarded by many people as the date of the birth of the babe Jesus in a manger at Bethlehem. Whether the date is correct or not is of small importance, but the event was and is of the greatest importance."
  170. 1975 Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, page 146
  171. Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, page 152.
  172. 172.0 172.1 Franz 2007, p. 484
  173. "The Higher Powers", Watch Tower, June 1929, pages 163-169, 179-185.
  174. 174.0 174.1 Penton 1997, p. 65
  175. Russell 1891, p. 23
  176. Creation by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1927, chapter 12, page 314.
  177. Joseph Rutherford (1928). The Harp of God (Revised ed.). p. 233.
  178. The Watchtower, December 1, 1929, pages 355-357, as cited by Edmond C. Gruss, The Four Presidents of the Watch Tower Society, page 117 and Tony Wills, A People For His name, page 48.
  179. Penton 1997, p. 62
  180. Preservation by J. F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1932, page 103-194.
  181. Watch Tower, October 1, 1932, page 294.
  182. Preparation, ©1933 by J. F. Rutherford, Watch Tower, page 196
  183. The Watchtower, February 15, 1925, page 57, "We know the work of restitution must come to the Jews first, and through them to the rest of the world. As the Scriptures state that Jerusalem is to be the capital of the world and that the ancient worthies are to be princes in all the earth, we are warranted in expecting that the kingdom work will begin at Jerusalem."
  184. Vindication, Book 2, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1932, pages 258, 269, 295.
  185. Vindication, Book 3, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1932, page 333.
  186. Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, page 165.
  187. Watchtower, August 15, 1934, as cited by Tony Wills, A People For His Name, pg 192-193.
  188. Vindication, J. F. Rutherford, Book III, pages 83. 84.
  189. Watchtower, January 15, 1927, pg 26, 27, "He who is called to be a minister of God must be a new creature, begotten of God's holy spirit; none other can have a share. In this ministry only those who are new creatures in Jesus Christ are entitled to share." As cited by Tony Wills, A People For His Name,(2007), pg 194.
  190. Prophecy by J. F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1929, chapter 4, page 65.
  191. Watch Tower, December 1, 1933, page 362: "In the year 1914 that due time of waiting came to an end. Christ Jesus received the authority of the kingdom and was sent forth by Jehovah to rule amidst his enemies. The year 1914, therefore, marks the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, the King of glory."
  192. Penton 1997, p. 69
  193. Jehovah, J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1934.
  194. Watchtower, November 1, 1917, page 6161.
  195. J.F. Rutherford, Jehovah, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1934, page 191.
  196. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1959, page 140.
  197. The Watchtower, March 1, 1935
  198. The Golden Age, October 12, 1921, Page 17, "Vaccination never prevented anything and never will, and is the most barbarous practice ... We are in the last days; and the devil is slowly losing his hold, making a strenuous effort meanwhile to do all the damage he can, and to his credit can such evils be placed ... Use your rights as American citizens to forever abolish the devilish practice of vaccinations."
  199. The Golden Age, January 5, 1929, Page 502, "Thinking people would rather have smallpox than vaccination, because the latter sows seeds of syphilis, cancers, eczema, erysipelas, scrofula, consumption, even leprosy and many other loathsome affections. Hence the practice of vaccinations is a crime, an outrage, and a delusion."
  200. The Golden Age, April 2, 1935, Page 465, "As vaccination is a direct injection of animal matter in the blood stream, vaccination is a direct violation of the law of Jehovah God."
  201. Riches, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1936, page 27.
  202. Franz 2007, p. 150
  203. Watchtower, November 1, 1937, page 336, as cited by Tony Wills, A People For His Name, pg 195.
  204. Watchtower, March 1, 1930, page 71, "Since "Christ' means the anointed of God, it is manifestly true that no one can properly be termed a Christian who is not in Christ and who has not received the anointing."
  205. A People for His Name, Tony Wills, pgs 186-187, citing Watchtower October 15, 1938, pg 307, Watchtower, November 1, 1938, page 323, Watchtower, November 15, 1938, page 346.
  206. Watch Tower, November 1, 1939, as cited by Jehovah's Witnesses, Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, page 193.
  207. The Watchtower, July 1, 1942, pages 205-206
  208. "Questions from Readers". The Watchtower: 94. February 1, 1955. Jehovah's witnesses from 1877 up to and including the publishing of "The Truth Shall Make You Free" of 1943 considered 536 B.C. as the year for the return of the Jews to Palestine
  209. "Determining the Year by Fact and Bible". The Watchtower: 2712. May 1, 1952. Concerning the first error, Russell and others considered 1 B.C. to A.D. 1 as being two years whereas in fact this is only one year because, as has been said above, there is no "zero" year in the B.C.-A.D. system for counting years.
  210. Russell 1889, p. 54
  211. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, May 15, 1896, R1980 page 112.
  212. Three Worlds, by N. H. Barbour and C. T. Russell, 1877, pages 67, 186, as cited by Edmund Gruss, The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, 1972, pages 62-63.
  213. The Truth Shall Make You Free, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1943, chapter 11, page 151.
  214. 214.0 214.1 Gruss, Edmond C. (1972), The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, pp. 68–69, ISBN 0-87552-306-4
  215. Penton 1997, p. 89
  216. The Watchtower, May 15, 1944.
  217. The New Creation, Watch Tower, 1904, pages 289-290, "The administration of discipline is not the function of the elders only, but of the entire [congregation]. ... If the reproved one fails to clear himself, and continues in the error or sin, then two or three brethren without previous prejudice should be asked to hear the matter and advise the disputants. (Elders they may or may not be, but their eldership would add no force or authority in the case except as their judgment might be the riper and their influence the more potent.) If this committee decide unanimously with either party, the other should acquiesce and the matter be wholly at an end--correction, or restitution, so far as possible, being promptly made. If either of the original disputants still persists in the wrong course, the [accuser, a committee member] or, preferably, all of these together, may then (but not sooner) exercise their privilege of bringing the matter before the [congregation]. Thus it is evident that the Elders were in no sense to be judges of the membershearing and judgment were left to the [congregation]. The two preliminary steps (above mentioned) having been taken, the facts being certified to the elders, it would be their duty to call a general meeting of the [congregation], as a court--to hear the case in all of its particulars, and in the name and reverence of its Head to render a decision. ... if the transgressor refuse to hear (obey) the decision of the entire [congregation], ... the [congregation] is to withdraw from him its fellowship and any and all signs or manifestations of brotherhood. [emphasis retained from original]
  218. 218.0 218.1 "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, 1 February 1955: 94–95
  219. Penton 1997, p. 153
  220. The Watchtower, July 1. 1945.
  221. The Watch Tower, November 15, 1892 p. 351.
  222. The Watch Tower, April 15, 1909 pp. 116-117, "These prohibitions had never come to the Gentiles, because they had never been under the Law Covenant; but so deeply rooted were the Jewish ideas on this subject that it was necessary to the peace of the Church that the Gentiles should observe this matter also ... these items thus superadded to the Law of Love should be observed by all spiritual Israelites as representing the Divine will.”
  223. 223.0 223.1 "Vision of the "Time of the End"". The Watchtower: 404. July 1, 1951.
  224. "Questions From Readers". The Watchtower. October 1, 1951.
  225. "Questions From Readers". The Watchtower. December 15, 1952.
  226. "Questions From Readers". The Watchtower. September 15, 1958. Q: Are we to consider the injection of serums such as diphtheria toxin antitoxin and blood fractions such as gamma globulin into the blood stream, for the purpose of building up resistance to disease by means of antibodies, the same as the drinking of blood or the taking of blood or blood plasma by means of transfusion? A: No, it does not seem necessary that we put the two in the same category, although we have done so in times past.
  227. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, 1 February 1955: 95
  228. "Interesting Queries", Watch Tower, July 15, 1898, page 216.
  229. Watchtower, November 15, 1939, page 339: "Jehovah God commands all to worship Christ Jesus because Christ Jesus is the express image of his Father, Jehovah"
  230. Watchtower, October 15, 1945, page 313: "Since Jehovah God now reigns as King by means of his capital organization Zion, then whosoever would worship Him must also worship and bow down to Jehovah's Chief One in that capital organization, namely, Christ Jesus."
  231. "Questions From Readers", Watchtower, January 1, 1954, page 30.
  232. "Modern Restoration of True Worship (1919-1932)", The Watchtower, May 15, 1955, page 296, "Jesus—then to expand on a global scale—so now in the spring of 1919 there was an outpouring of Jehovah’s holy spirit organizationally upon the Christian remnant."
  233. Watchtower, January 15, 1961, page 63.
  234. Watchtower, August 1, 1961, page 480.
  235. Watchtower, November 15, 1962.
  236. The Divine Plan of the Ages, by C. T. Russell, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1886, page 266: "They taught the Church to obey the laws, and to respect those in authority because of their office, even if they were not personally worthy of esteem; to pay their appointed taxes, and, except where they conflicted with God's laws (Acts 4: 19; 5: 29), to offer no resistance to any established law. (Rom. 13: 1 - 7)"
  237. "The Congregation in the Time of the End", Watchtower, March 1, 1961, page 146.
  238. All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1963, page 286.
  239. "The Removal of Mankind's Chief Disturber", The Watchtower, 15 July 1967: 446–447
  240. Awake, June 8, 1968, Page 21 “Christian witnesses of Jehovah,... consider all transplants between humans as cannibalism.”
  241. Watchtower, November 15, 1967, pages 702-704
  242. 242.0 242.1 Penton, M. J. Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, pp. 165–171, "In 1967 the society suddenly decided that what had been permissible no longer was. Organ transplants suddenly became a form of human cannibalism ... Yet after many faithful Jehovah's Witnesses had suffered for their faith by giving up transplants which in some cases could have made their lives more pleasant and comfortable and by saving them from early death in others, the society again reversed itself."
  243. "Keep Abstaining from Blood", Awake!, July 8, 1972, page 28, "The stand of the Christian witnesses of Jehovah—that such transplants are in effect a form of cannibalism—proved a safeguard. How so? In that it spared them much frustration, grief and anxiety, which were experienced not only by the patients and their relatives but even by many of the assisting medical personnel."
  244. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, February 1, 1955, page 95, "However, from our present chronology (which is admitted imperfect) at best the fall of the year 1976 would be the end of 6,000 years of human history for mankind... Obviously, whatever amount of Adam’s 930 years was lived before the beginning of that seventh-day rest of Jehovah, that unknown amount would have to be added to the 1976 date."
  245. Thy Kingdom Come by C. T. Russell, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1889, pages 127-128. "long enough [for Adam] to realize his lack of a companion" and an additional "two years would not be an improbable estimate" to have passed between Adam's creation and Edenic expulsion (beginning the seventh creative day).
  246. "Why Are You Looking Forward to 1975?", The Watchtower, August 15, 1968, page 499-500
  247. Watchtower, June 1, 1973, page 340.
  248. "Questions From Readers", Watchtower, March 15, 1980, page 31.
  249. John Dart, "Defectors Feel Witnsses' Wrath", Los Angeles Times, January 30, 1982, Part II, page 4, "The Sept. 15 Watchtower magazine told members that anyone who has written a letter of resignation should be shunned as if he had been 'disfellowshipped', or expelled ... 'This is a hardening, a tightening, of our policy,' confirmed William Van De Wall, a headquarters spokesman for the Watchtower Society. Denying any great membership losses, Van De Wall said the new directive was to counteract 'disgruntled' ex-members."
  250. “Seek Peace and Pursue It”, The Watchtower, July 15, 1983, page 25
  251. "Questions from readers", The Watctower, January 1, 1987, page 30, "A study of the fulfillment of Bible prophecy and of our location in the stream of time strongly indicate that each of the creative days is 7,000 years long. It is understood that Christ’s reign of a thousand years will bring to a close God’s 7,000-year ‘rest day,’ the last ‘day’ of the creative week. Based on this reasoning, the entire creative week would be 49,000 years long."
  252. "Creation", Insight, volume 1, 1988 Watch Tower, page 545, "Since the seventh day has been continuing for thousands of years, it may reasonably be concluded that each of the six creative periods, or days, was at least thousands of years in length ... Ascribing not just 24 hours but a longer period of time, thousands of years, to each of the creative days better harmonizes with the evidence found in the earth itself."
  253. All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1990, page 286.
  254. Man's Salvation Out of World Distress at Hand!, pages 167168 (1975)
  255. The Watchtower, April 15, 1992, pages 1217
  256. Watchtower, November 1, 1995, page 20.
  257. The Watchtower, June 1, 1997, page 28: "The recent information in The Watchtower about "this generation" did not change our understanding of what occurred in 1914. But it did give us a clearer grasp of Jesus' use of the term "generation," helping us to see that his usage was no basis for calculating-counting from 1914 how close to the end we are."
  258. Joel P. Engardio (December 18, 1995), "Apocalypse Later", Newsweek
  259. Penton 1997, p. 317
  260. John Dart, "Jehovah's Witnesses Abandon Key Tenet", Los Angeles Times, November 4, 1995.
  261. Watchtower, February 1, 1995.
  262. Penton 1997, p. 316
  263. "Part 2—Flashes of Light—Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 25
  264. "Chapter 24: Why Jesus Came to Earth", The Greatest Man Who Ever Lived, ©1991, "Jesus came to earth particularly to preach about God’s Kingdom, which will vindicate his Father’s name"
  265. Watchtower, February 15, 1995, p.19.
  266. Watchtower, May 1, 2007, pages 30-31: "It appears that we can not set a specific date for when the calling of Christians to the heavenly hope ends."
  267. "Watchtower", February 15, 2008, pages 23-24: "On the other hand, Christ's faithful anointed brothers, the modern-day John class, have recognized this sign as if it were a flash of lightning and have understood its true meaning. As a class, these anointed ones make up the modern-day "generation" of contemporaries that will not pass away "until all these things occur."* This suggests that some who are Christ's anointed brothers will still be alive on earth when the foretold great tribulation begins."
  268. "Holy spirit's role in the outworking of Jehovah's purposes", The Watchtower, 15 April 2010: 10
  269. "Your Leader Is One, the Christ". The Watchtower: 23. September 15, 2010.
  270. "Annual Meeting Report".
  271. ""Who Really Is the Faithful and Discreet Slave?"". The Watchtower: 2025. July 15, 2013.
  272. 2014 Annual Meeting of Jehovah's Witnesses
  273. Franz 2007, pp. 480–488
  274. Holden, p. 32
  275. Wills 2006, p. 253
  276. 276.0 276.1 Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954, page 119.

Bibliography