Calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate
Names
IUPAC name
Calcium carbonate
Other names
Identifiers
ATC code A02AC01
A12AA04
471-34-1 Yes
ChEBI CHEBI:3311 Yes
ChEMBL ChEMBL1200539 
ChemSpider 9708 Yes
EC number 207-439-9
Jmol-3D images Image
Image
KEGG D00932 Yes
PubChem 10112
RTECS number FF9335000
UNII H0G9379FGK Yes
Properties
CaCO3
Molar mass 100.0869 g/mol
Appearance Fine white powder; chalky taste
Odor odorless
Density 2.711 g/cm3 (calcite)
2.83 g/cm3 (aragonite)
Melting point 1,339 °C (2,442 °F; 1,612 K) (calcite)
825 °C (1517 °F; 1,098 K) (aragonite) [1]
Boiling point decomposes
0.013 g/L (25 °C)[2][3]
4.8×10−9[4]
Solubility in dilute acids soluble
Acidity (pKa) 9.0
1.59
Structure
Crystal structure Trigonal
Space group 32/m
Thermochemistry
93 J·mol−1·K−1[5]
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfHo298)
 −1207 kJ·mol−1[5]
Hazards
MSDS ICSC 1193
EU Index Not listed
NFPA 704
Flammability code 0: Will not burn. E.g., water Health code 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g., sodium chloride Reactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g., liquid nitrogen Special hazards (white): no codeNFPA 704 four-colored diamond
0
0
0
Flash point 825 °C (1,517 °F; 1,098 K)
6450 mg/kg (oral, rat)
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp)[6]
Related compounds
Other anions
 Calcium bicarbonate
Other cations
 Magnesium carbonate
Strontium carbonate
Barium carbonate
Related compounds
 Calcium sulfate
Except where noted otherwise, data is given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 kPa)
  verify (what is: Yes/?)
Infobox references
Crystal structure of calcite

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is formed by three main elements: carbon, oxygen and calcium. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime, and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions creating limescale. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

Chemistry

See also: Carbonate

Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably:

CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble calcium bicarbonate.

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2

This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water in many regions.

An unusual form of calcium carbonate is the hexahydrate, ikaite, CaCO3·6H2O. Ikaite is stable only below 6 °C.

Preparation

The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source (usually marble).

Alternatively, calcium carbonate is prepared from calcium oxide. Water is added to give calcium hydroxide then carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):[7]

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Structure

The thermodynamically stable form of CaCO3 under normal conditions is hexagonal β-CaCO3, (the mineral calcite).[8] Other forms can be prepared, the denser,(2.83 g/cc) orthorhombic λ-CaCO3 ( the mineral aragonite) and μ-CaCO3, occurring as the mineral vaterite.[8] The aragonite form can be prepared by precipitation at temperatures above 85 °C, the vaterite form can be prepared by precipitation at 60 °C.[8] Calcite contains calcium atoms coordinated by 6 oxygen atoms, in aragonite they are coordinated by 9 oxygen atoms.[8] The vaterite structure is not fully understood.[9] Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 has the calcite structure, whereas strontium and barium carbonate (SrCO3 and BaCO3) adopt the aragonite structure, reflecting their larger ionic radii.[8]

Occurrence

Geological sources

Calcite, aragonite and vaterite are pure calcium carbonate minerals. Industrially important source rocks which are predominantly calcium carbonate include limestone, chalk, marble and travertine.

Biological sources

Eggshells, snail shells and most seashells are predominantly calcium carbonate and can be used as industrial sources of that chemical. [10] Oyster shells have enjoyed recent recognition as a source of dietary calcium, but are also a practical industrial source.[11][12] While not practical as an industrial source, dark green vegetables such as broccoli and kale contain dietarily significant amounts of calcium carbonate.[13]

Extraterrestrial

Beyond Earth, there is strong evidence that Calcium carbonate was detected on the planet Mars at more than one location (notably at Gusev and Huygens craters), providing evidence for the past presence of liquid water.[14][15]

Geology

Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings and constitute an enormous carbon reservoir. Calcium carbonate occurs as aragonite and calcite. The carbonate minerals form the rock types: limestone, chalk, marble, travertine, tufa, and others. Calcium carbonate has been found in some mines to be 99.2% pure.[16]

In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Corals are more abundant in this environment than towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors, including plankton (such as coccoliths and planktic foraminifera), coralline algae, sponges, brachiopods, echinoderms, bryozoa and mollusks, are typically found in shallow water environments where sunlight and filterable food are more abundant. Cold-water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate. The calcification processes are changed by the ocean acidification.

Where the oceanic crust is subducted under a continental plate sediments will be carried down to warmer zones in the asthenosphere and lithosphere where the calcium carbonate is decomposed to carbon dioxide which will give rise to explosive volcanic eruptions.

Carbonate compensation depth

The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is the point in the ocean where the rate of precipitation of calcium carbonate is balanced by the rate of dissolution due to the conditions present. Deep in the ocean, the temperature drops and pressure increases. Calcium carbonate is unusual in that its solubility increases with decreasing temperature. Increasing pressure also increases the solubility of calcium carbonate. The CCD can range from 4–6 km below sea level.

Role in taphonomy

Calcium carbonate can preserve fossils through permineralization. Most of the vertebrate fossils of the Two Medicine Formation—a geologic formation known for its duck-billed dinosaur eggs—are preserved by CaCO3 permineralization.[17] This type of preservation preserves high levels of detail, even down to the microscopic level.[17] However, it also leaves specimens vulnerable to weathering when exposed to the surface.[17]

Uses

Industrial applications

The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the preparation of builder's lime by burning in a kiln. However, because of weathering mainly caused by acid rain,[18] calcium carbonate (in limestone form) is no longer used for building purposes on its own, but only as a raw/primary substance for building materials.

Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. The carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron.[19]

In the oil industry, calcium carbonate is added to drilling fluids as a formation-bridging and filtercake-sealing agent; it is also a weighting material which increases the density of drilling fluids to control the downhole pressure. Calcium carbonate is added to swimming pools, as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity and offsetting the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent.

It is also used as a raw material in the refining of sugar from sugar beet; It is calcined in a kiln with anthracite to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. This burnt lime is then slaked in sweet water to produce a calcium hydroxide suspension for the precipitation of impurities in raw juice during carbonatation.

Calcium carbonate has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. However, modern manufactured chalk is mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4·2H2O. Calcium carbonate is a main source for growing Seacrete, or Biorock. Precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), pre-dispersed in slurry form, is a common filler material for latex gloves with the aim of achieving maximum saving in material and production costs.[20]

Fine ground calcium carbonate (GCC) is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in babies' diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching. GCC or PCC is used as a filler in paper because they are cheaper than wood fiber. In terms of market volume, GCC are the most important types of fillers currently used.[21] Printing and writing paper can contain 10–20% calcium carbonate. In North America, calcium carbonate has begun to replace kaolin in the production of glossy paper. Europe has been practicing this as alkaline papermaking or acid-free papermaking for some decades. PCC has a very fine and controlled particle size, on the order of 2 micrometres in diameter, useful in coatings for paper.

Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints,[22] in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble. It is also a popular filler in plastics.[22] Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures.[23] Here the percentage is often 20–40%. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (sheet and bulk molding compounds)[23] and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of compression molded "clay" poker chips. Precipitated calcium carbonate, made by dropping calcium oxide into water, is used by itself or with additives as a white paint, known as whitewashing.

Calcium carbonate is added to a wide range of trade and do it yourself adhesives, sealants, and decorating fillers.[22] Ceramic tile adhesives typically contain 70 to 80% limestone. Decorating crack fillers contain similar levels of marble or dolomite. It is also mixed with putty in setting stained glass windows, and as a resist to prevent glass from sticking to kiln shelves when firing glazes and paints at high temperature.

In ceramics/glazing applications, calcium carbonate is known as whiting,[22] and is a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze. Ground calcium carbonate is an abrasive (both as scouring powder and as an ingredient of household scouring creams), in particular in its calcite form, which has the relatively low hardness level of 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, and will therefore not scratch glass and most other ceramics, enamel, bronze, iron, and steel, and have a moderate effect on softer metals like aluminium and copper. A paste made from calcium carbonate and deionized water can be used to clean tarnish on silver.[24]

Health and dietary applications

500-milligram calcium supplements made from calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or gastric antacid.[25] It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals.[26]

Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples or food.[27]

Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause milk-alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regimen" of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalcaemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk-alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease arose. During the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1.2 to 1.5 g daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. Excessive calcium intake can lead to hypercalcemia, complications of which include vomiting, abdominal pain and altered mental status.[28]

As a food additive it is designated E170;[29] INS number 170. Used as an acidity regulator, anticaking agent, stabiliser or colour it is approved for usage in the EU,[30] USA[31] and Australia and New Zealand.[32] It is used in some soy milk and almond milk products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cow's milk.[33] Calcium carbonate is also used as a firming agent in many canned or bottled vegetable products.

Environmental applications

In 1989, a researcher, Ken Simmons, introduced CaCO3 into the Whetstone Brook in Massachusetts.[34] His hope was that the calcium carbonate would counter the acid in the stream from acid rain and save the trout that had ceased to spawn. Although his experiment was a success, it did increase the amount of aluminium ions in the area of the brook that was not treated with the limestone. This shows that CaCO3 can be added to neutralize the effects of acid rain in river ecosystems. Currently calcium carbonate is used to neutralize acidic conditions in both soil and water.[35][36][37] Since the 1970s, such liming has been practiced on a large scale in Sweden to mitigate acidification and several thousand lakes and streams are limed repeatedly.[38]

Calcium carbonate is also used in flue gas desulfurisation applications eliminating harmful SO2 and NO2 emissions from coal and other fossil fuels burnt in large fossil fuel power stations.[35]

Calcination equilibrium

Calcination of limestone using charcoal fires to produce quicklime has been practiced since antiquity by cultures all over the world. The temperature at which limestone yields calcium oxide is usually given as 825 °C, but stating an absolute threshold is misleading. Calcium carbonate exists in equilibrium with calcium oxide and carbon dioxide at any temperature. At each temperature there is a partial pressure of carbon dioxide that is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. At room temperature the equilibrium overwhelmingly favors calcium carbonate, because the equilibrium CO2 pressure is only a tiny fraction of the partial CO2 pressure in air, which is about 0.035 kPa.

At temperatures above 550 °C the equilibrium CO2 pressure begins to exceed the CO2 pressure in air. So above 550 °C, calcium carbonate begins to outgas CO2 into air. However, in a charcoal fired kiln, the concentration of CO2 will be much higher than it is in air. Indeed if all the oxygen in the kiln is consumed in the fire, then the partial pressure of CO2 in the kiln can be as high as 20 kPa.[39]

The table shows that this partial pressure is not achieved until the temperature is nearly 800 °C. For the outgassing of CO2 from calcium carbonate to happen at an economically useful rate, the equilibrium pressure must significantly exceed the ambient pressure of CO2. And for it to happen rapidly, the equilibrium pressure must exceed total atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa, which happens at 898 °C.

Equilibrium pressure of CO2 over CaCO3 (P) vs. temperature (T).[40]
P (kPa)0.0550.130.311.805.99.31424345172 80911011799013961
T (°C)55058760568072774877780083085287188189189893710821241

Solubility

With varying CO2 pressure

Travertine calcium carbonate deposits from a hot spring

Calcium carbonate is poorly soluble in pure water (47 mg/L at normal atmospheric CO2 partial pressure as shown below).

The equilibrium of its solution is given by the equation (with dissolved calcium carbonate on the right):

CaCO3 is in equilibrium with Ca2+ + CO32− Ksp = 3.7×10−9 to 8.7×10−9 at 25 °C

where the solubility product for [Ca2+][CO32−] is given as anywhere from Ksp = 3.7×10−9 to Ksp = 8.7×10−9 at 25 °C, depending upon the data source.[40][41] What the equation means is that the product of molar concentration of calcium ions (moles of dissolved Ca2+ per liter of solution) with the molar concentration of dissolved CO32− cannot exceed the value of Ksp. This seemingly simple solubility equation, however, must be taken along with the more complicated equilibrium of carbon dioxide with water (see carbonic acid). Some of the CO32− combines with H+ in the solution according to:

HCO3− is in equilibrium with H+ + CO32−    Ka2 = 5.61×10−11 at 25 °C

HCO3− is known as the bicarbonate ion. Calcium bicarbonate is many times more soluble in water than calcium carbonate—indeed it exists only in solution.

Some of the HCO3− combines with H+ in solution according to:

H2CO3 is in equilibrium with H+ + HCO3−    Ka1 = 2.5×10−4 at 25 °C

Some of the H2CO3 breaks up into water and dissolved carbon dioxide according to:

H2O + CO2(dissolved) is in equilibrium with H2CO3    Kh = 1.70×10−3 at 25 °C

And dissolved carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide according to:

\frac{P_{\text{CO}_2}}{[\text{CO}_2]}\ =\ k_\text{H} where kH = 29.76 atm/(mol/L) at 25 °C (Henry constant), \scriptstyle P_{\text{CO}_2} being the CO2 partial pressure.

For ambient air, \scriptstyle P_{\text{CO}_2} is around 3.5×10−4 atmospheres (or equivalently 35 Pa). The last equation above fixes the concentration of dissolved CO2 as a function of \scriptstyle P_{\text{CO}_2}, independent of the concentration of dissolved CaCO3. At atmospheric partial pressure of CO2, dissolved CO2 concentration is 1.2×10−5 moles/liter. The equation before that fixes the concentration of H2CO3 as a function of [CO2]. For [CO2]=1.2×10−5, it results in [H2CO3]=2.0×10−8 moles per liter. When [H2CO3] is known, the remaining three equations together with

Calcium ion solubility as a function of
CO2 partial pressure at 25 °C (Ksp = 4.47×10−9)
\scriptstyle P_{\text{CO}_2} (atm) pH [Ca2+] (mol/L)
10−12 12.05.19 × 10−3
10−10 11.31.12 × 10−3
10−8 10.72.55 × 10−4
10−6 9.831.20 × 10−4
10−4 8.623.16 × 10−4
3.5 × 10−48.274.70 × 10−4
10−3 7.966.62 × 10−4
10−2 7.301.42 × 10−3
10−1 6.633.05 × 10−3
1 5.966.58 × 10−3
10 5.301.42 × 10−2
H2O is in equilibrium with H+ + OH− K = 10−14 at 25 °C

(which is true for all aqueous solutions), and the fact that the solution must be electrically neutral,

2[Ca2+] + 2[H+] = [HCO3−] + 2[CO32−] + [OH−]

make it possible to solve simultaneously for the remaining five unknown concentrations (note that the above form of the neutrality equation is valid only if calcium carbonate has been put in contact with pure water or with a neutral pH solution; in the case where the origin water solvent pH is not neutral, the equation is modified).

The table on the right shows the result for [Ca2+] and [H+] (in the form of pH) as a function of ambient partial pressure of CO2 (Ksp = 4.47×10−9 has been taken for the calculation).

The effect of the latter is especially evident in day-to-day life of people who have hard water. Water in aquifers underground can be exposed to levels of CO2 much higher than atmospheric. As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock, the CaCO3 dissolves according to the second trend. When that same water then emerges from the tap, in time it comes into equilibrium with CO2 levels in the air by outgassing its excess CO2. The calcium carbonate becomes less soluble as a result and the excess precipitates as lime scale. This same process is responsible for the formation of stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves.

Two hydrated phases of calcium carbonate, monohydrocalcite, CaCO3·H2O and ikaite, CaCO3·6H2O, may precipitate from water at ambient conditions and persist as metastable phases.

With varying pH, temperature and salinity: CaCO3 scaling in swimming pools

Effects of salinity and pH on the maximum calcium ion level before scaling is anticipated at 25 C and 1 mM bicarbonate (e.g. in swimming pools)
Effects of temperature and bicarbonate concentration on the maximum calcium ion level before scaling is anticipated at pH 7 and 5,000 ppm salinity (e.g. in swimming pools)

In contrast to the open equilibrium scenario above, many swimming pools are managed by addition of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to about 2 mM as a buffer, then control of pH through use of HCl, NaHSO4, Na2CO3, NaOH or chlorine formulations that are acidic or basic. In this situation, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is far from equilibrium with atmospheric CO2. Progress towards equilibrium through outgassing of CO2 is slowed by (i) the slow reaction H2CO3 ⇌ CO2(aq) + H2O;[42] (ii) limited aeration in a deep water column and (iii) periodic replenishment of bicarbonate to maintain buffer capacity (often estimated through measurement of ‘total alkalinity’).

In this situation, the dissociation constants for the much faster reactions H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3‾ ⇌ 2 H+ + CO32− allow the prediction of concentrations of each DIC species in solution, from the added concentration of HCO3− (which comprises more than 90% of total DIC from pH 7 to pH 8 at 25 ˚C in fresh water.[43] Addition of HCO3− will increase CO32− concentration at any pH. Rearranging the equations given above, we can see that [Ca2+] = Ksp / [CO32−], and [CO32−] = Ka2 × [HCO3−] / [H+]. Therefore, when HCO3− concentration is known, the maximum concentration of Ca2+ ions before scaling through CaCO3 precipitation can be predicted from the formula:

Ca2+max = (Ksp / Ka2) × ([H+] / [HCO3−])

The solubility product for CaCO3 (Ksp) and the dissociation constants for the DIC species (including Ka2) are all substantially affected by temperature and salinity,[43] with the overall effect that Ca2+max increases from fresh to salt water, and decreases with rising temperature, pH, or added bicarbonate level, as illustrated in the accompanying graphs.

The trends are illustrative for pool management, but whether scaling occurs also depends on other factors including interactions with Mg2+, B(OH)4− and other ions in the pool, as well as supersaturation effects.[44][45] Scaling is commonly observed in electrolytic chlorine generators, where there is a high pH near the cathode surface and scale deposition further increases temperature. This is one reason that some pool operators prefer borate over bicarbonate as the primary pH buffer, and avoid the use of pool chemicals containing calcium.[46]

Solubility in a strong or weak acid solution

Solutions of strong (HCl), moderately strong (sulfamic) or weak (acetic, citric, sorbic, lactic, phosphoric) acids are commercially available. They are commonly used as descaling agents to remove limescale deposits. The maximum amount of CaCO3 that can be "dissolved" by one liter of an acid solution can be calculated using the above equilibrium equations.

[A] (mol/L) 1 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−10
Initial pH 0.001.002.003.004.005.006.006.797.00
Final pH 6.757.257.758.148.258.268.268.268.27
Dissolved CaCO3 (g per liter of acid) 50.05.000.5140.08490.05040.04740.04710.04700.0470

where the initial state is the acid solution with no Ca2+ (not taking into account possible CO2 dissolution) and the final state is the solution with saturated Ca2+. For strong acid concentrations, all species have a negligible concentration in the final state with respect to Ca2+ and A− so that the neutrality equation reduces approximately to 2[Ca2+] = [A−] yielding \scriptstyle[\mathrm{Ca}^{2+}] \simeq \frac{[\mathrm{A}^-]}{2}. When the concentration decreases, [HCO3−] becomes non-negligible so that the preceding expression is no longer valid. For vanishing acid concentrations, one can recover the final pH and the solubility of CaCO3 in pure water.

[A] (mol/L) 1 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−10
Initial pH 2.382.883.393.914.475.156.026.797.00
Final pH 6.757.257.758.148.258.268.268.268.27
Dissolved CaCO3 (g per liter of acid) 49.54.990.5130.08480.05040.04740.04710.04700.0470

For the same total acid concentration, the initial pH of the weak acid is less acid than the one of the strong acid; however, the maximum amount of CaCO3 which can be dissolved is approximately the same. This is because in the final state, the pH is larger than the pKA, so that the weak acid is almost completely dissociated, yielding in the end as many H+ ions as the strong acid to "dissolve" the calcium carbonate.

[A] (mol/L) 1 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−10
Initial pH 1.081.622.253.054.015.005.976.747.00
Final pH 6.717.177.638.068.248.268.268.268.27
Dissolved CaCO3 (g per liter of acid) 62.07.390.8740.1230.05360.04770.04710.04710.0470

where [A] = [H3PO4] + [H2PO4−] + [HPO42−] + [PO43−] is the total acid concentration. Thus phosphoric acid is more efficient than a monoacid since at the final almost neutral pH, the second dissociated state concentration [HPO42−] is not negligible (see phosphoric acid).

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Occupational safety and health guideline for calcium carbonate" (PDF). US Dept. of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
  2. ↑ Aylward, Gordon and Findlay, Tristan (2008). SI Chemical Data Book (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
  3. ↑ Rohleder, J.; Kroker, E. (2001). Calcium Carbonate: From the Cretaceous Period Into the 21st Century. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 3-7643-6425-4.
  4. ↑ Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-049439-8.
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  6. ↑ "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0090". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  7. ↑ "Precipitated Calcium Carbonate". Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 R C Ropp Elsevier. Encyclopedia of the alkaline earth compounds. Elsevier. pp. 359–370. ISBN 9780444595508.
  9. ↑ Demichelis, Raffaella; Raiteri, Paolo; Gale, Julian D.; Dovesi, Roberto (2013). "The Multiple Structures of Vaterite". Crystal Growth & Design 13 (6): 2247–2251. doi:10.1021/cg4002972. ISSN 1528-7483.
  10. ↑ Horne, Francis (23 October 2006). "How are seashells created?". Scientific American. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  11. ↑ "WebMD: Oyster shell calcium". WebMD. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  12. ↑ "Oyster Shell Calcium Carbonate". Caltron Clays &amp Chemicals.
  13. ↑ Heaney, R.P.; Weaver, C.M.; Hinders, SM.; Martin, B.; Packard, P.T. (1993). "Absorbability of Calcium from Brassica Vegetables: Broccoli, Bok Choy, and Kale". Journal of Food Science 58 (6): 1378–1380. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1993.tb06187.x.
  14. ↑ Boynton, WV; Ming, DW; Kounaves, SP; Young, SM; Arvidson, RE; Hecht, MH; Hoffman, J; Niles, PB et al. (2009). "Evidence for Calcium Carbonate at the Mars Phoenix Landing Site" (PDF). Science 325 (5936): 61–64. Bibcode:2009Sci...325...61B. doi:10.1126/science.1172768 (inactive 2015-02-25). PMID 19574384.
  15. ↑ Clark et al. (2007). "Evidence for montmorillonite or its compositional equivalent in Columbia Hills, Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research 112: E06S01. Bibcode:2007JGRE..11206S01C. doi:10.1029/2006JE002756.
  16. ↑ "CongCal, McGraths Limestone Works Ltd, Cong, Co. Mayo, Ireland". congcal.com. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Trexler, D., 2001, Two Medicine Formation, Montana: geology and fauna: In: Mesozoic Vertebrate Life, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 298–309. ISBN 0-253-33907-3
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  19. ↑ "Blast Furnace". Science Aid. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
  20. ↑ "Precipitated Calcium Carbonate uses".
  21. ↑ Market Study Fillers, 2nd ed., published by Ceresana, September 2011
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 "Calcium Carbonate Powder". Reade Advanced Materials. 4 February 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Calcium carbonate in plastic applications". Imerys Performance Minerals. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
  24. ↑ "Ohio Historical Society Blog: Make It Shine". Ohio Historical Society.
  25. ↑ "Calcium Carbonate". Medline Plus. National Institutes of Health. 1 October 2005. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
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  29. ↑ "Food-Info.net : E-numbers : E170 Calcium carbonate". 080419 food-info.net
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  31. ↑ US Food and Drug Administration: "Listing of Food Additives Status Part I". Retrieved 27 October 2011.
  32. ↑ Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code"Standard 1.2.4 – Labelling of ingredients". Retrieved 27 October 2011.
  33. ↑ Zhao, Y; Martin, B. R.; Weaver, C. M. (2005). "Calcium bioavailability of calcium carbonate fortified soymilk is equivalent to cow's milk in young women". The Journal of nutrition 135 (10): 2379–82. PMID 16177199.
  34. ↑ "Limestone Dispenser Fights Acid Rain in Stream". The New York Times. Associated Press. 13 June 1989.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Environmental Uses for Calcium Carbonate". Congcal. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
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  37. ↑ Kircheis, Dan and Dill, Richard (2006). "Effects of low pH and high aluminum on Atlantic salmon smolts in Eastern Maine and liming project feasibility analysis" (REPRINTED AT DOWNEAST SALMON FEDERATION). National Marine Fisheries Service and Maine Atlantic Salmon Commission.
  38. ↑ Guhrén, M.; Bigler, C.; Renberg, I. (2006). "Liming placed in a long-term perspective: A paleolimnological study of 12 lakes in the Swedish liming program". Journal of Paleolimnology 37 (2): 247. doi:10.1007/s10933-006-9014-9.
  39. ↑ "Solvay Precipitated Calcium Carbonate: Production". Solvay S. A. 9 March 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
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  41. ↑ "Selected Solubility Products and Formation Constants at 25 °C". California State University, Dominguez Hills.
  42. ↑ Wang, X.; Conway, W.; Burns, R.; McCann, N.; Maeder, M. (2010). "Comprehensive Study of the Hydration and Dehydration Reactions of Carbon Dioxide in Aqueous Solution". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 114 (4): 1734. doi:10.1021/jp909019u. PMID 20039712.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Mook, W. (2000) "Chemistry of carbonic acid in water", pp. 143–165 in Environmental Isotopes in the Hydrological Cycle: Principles and Applications. INEA/UNESCO: Paris.
  44. ↑ Wojtowicz, J. A. (1998). "Factors affecting precipitation of calcium carbonate" (PDF). Journal of the Swimming Pool and Spa Industry 3 (1): 18–23.
  45. ↑ Wojtowicz, J. A. (1998). "Corrections, potential errors, and significance of the saturation index" (PDF). Journal of the Swimming Pool and Spa Industry 3 (1): 37–40.
  46. ↑ Birch, R. G. (2013) BABES: a better method than “BBB” for pools with a salt-water chlorine generator. iinet.net.au

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