Calabria

For other uses, see Calabria (disambiguation).
Calabria
'
Region of Italy

View of Calabria from satellite

Flag
Coat of arms
Country Italy
Capital Catanzaro
Government
 • President Mario Oliverio (Democratic)
Area
 • Total 15,080 km2 (5,820 sq mi)
Population (2014-1-1)
 • Total 1,980,533
 • Density 130/km2 (340/sq mi)
Demonym Calabrian(s) / Calabrese / Calabresi
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
 • Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
GDP/ Nominal €33.6[1] billion (2008)
GDP per capita €16,400[2] (2008)
NUTS Region ITF
Website www.regione.calabria.it

Calabria (Italian pronunciation: [kaˈlaːbrja]; Calàbbria in Calabrian, Καλαβρία in Greek, Kalavrì in Arbëresh), known in antiquity as Bruttium or formerly as Italia, is a region in southern Italy, forming the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro. The most populated city and the seat of the Calabrian Regional Council, however, is Reggio.

It is bordered to the north by the region of Basilicata, to the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and to the east by the Ionian Sea. The region covers 15,080 km2 (5,822 sq mi) and has a population of just under 2 million. The demonym of Calabria in English is Calabrian.

In ancient times the name Calabria was used to refer to the southern part of Apulia, the peninsula of Salento (also known as the "heel" of Italy).

Geography

Cliff at Tropea
Pollino National Park
La Sila National Park
Calabria, photography taken from the ISS[3]

The region is a long and narrow peninsula which stretches from north to south for 248 km (154 mi), with a maximum width of 110 km (68 mi). Some 42% of Calabria's area, corresponding to 15,080 km2, is mountainous, 49% is hilly, while plains occupy only 9% of the region's territory. It is surrounded by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. It is separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina, where the narrowest point between Capo Peloro in Sicily and Punta Pezzo in Calabria is only 3.2 km (2 mi).

Three mountain ranges are present: Pollino, La Sila and Aspromonte. All three mountain ranges are unique with their own flora and fauna. The Pollino Mountains in the north of the region are rugged and form a natural barrier separating Calabria from the rest of Italy. Parts of the area are heavily wooded, while others are vast, wind-swept plateaus with little vegetation. These mountains are home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety, and are included in the Pollino National Park. La Sila is a vast mountainous plateau, about 1,200 metres above sea level, which stretches for nearly 2,000 km2 (772 sq mi) along the central part of Calabria. The highest point is Botte Donato, which reaches 1,928 metres. The area boasts numerous lakes and dense coniferous forests. The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides. This unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 metres, and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down towards the sea.

In general, most of the lower terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries, and exhibits indigenous scrubland as well as introduced plants such as the prickly pear cactus. The lowest slopes are rich in vineyards and citrus fruit orchards. The Diamante citron is one of the citrus fruits. Moving upwards, olives and chestnut trees appear while in the higher regions there are often dense forests of oak, pine, beech and fir trees.

Climate

Along the coastlines, the climate is Mediterranean with average low temperatures of 8 °C (46 °F) in the winter months and average high temperatures of 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer months. Along the Apennines and in the inland areas, the climate is mountainous (continental) with cold, snowy winters and warm, dry summers with occasional thunderstorms.

Geology

Geotectonic map of the Central Mediterranean Area and the Calabrian Arc. The blue trace indicates the position of the geotectonic cross section depicted below.From van Dijk (1992)[4]
Geotectonic Cross Section of the Calabrian Arc. Left: NW; Right: SE. From van Dijk (1992)[4]

When describing the geology of Calabria, it is commonly considered as part of the "Calabrian Arc", an arc-shaped geographic domain extending from the southern part of the Basilicata Region to the northeast of Sicily, and including the Peloritano Mountains (although some authors extend this domain from Naples in the North up to Palermo in the Southwest). The Calabrian area shows basement (crystalline and metamorphic rocks) of Paleozoic and younger ages, covered by (mostly Upper) Neogene sediments. Studies have revealed that these rocks comprise the upper Unit of a pile of thrust sheets which dominate the Apennines and the Sicilian Maghrebides.[4]

The Neogene evolution of the Central Mediterranean system is dominated by the migration of the Calabrian Arc to the southeast, overriding the African Plate and its promontories (Argand, 1922;[5] Boccaletti and Guazzone, 1972[6]). The main tectonic elements of the Calabrian Arc are the Southern Apennines fold-and-thrust belt, the "Calabria-Peloritani", or simply Calabrian block and the Sicilian Maghrebides fold-and-thrust belt. The foreland area is formed by the Apulia Platform, which is part of the Adriatic Plate, and the Ragusa or Iblean Platform, which is an extension of the African Plate. These platforms are separated by the Ionian Basin. The Tyrrhenian oceanized basin is regarded as the back-arc basin. This subduction system therefore shows the southern plates of African affinity subducting below the northern plates of European affinity.[4]

The geology of Calabria has been studied for more than a century. For details concerning the older literature, i.e. from before 1973, the reader is referred to the review of Ogniben (1973).[7] Ippolito (1959)[8] presented a complete bibliography of the literature on the Calabrian geology as published up until that moment. Books, reviews and important "mile¬stones" concerning the geology of the Calabrian Arc are the following: Cortese (1895),[9] Limanowski (1913),[10] Quitzow (1935),[11] Caire et al. (1960),[12] Caire (1961),[13] Grandjacquet et al. (1961),[14] Ogniben (1969,[15] 1973[7] ), Caire (1970,[16] 1975,[17] 1978[18] ), Burton (1971),[19] Amodio-Morelli et al. (1976),[20] Dubois (1976),[21] Grandjacquet and Mascle (1978),[22] Moussat (1983),[23] van Dijk (1992),[24] and van Dijk et al. (2000).[4] The earlier works were mainly dedicated to the evolution of the basement rocks of the area. The Neogene sedimentary successions were merely regarded as "post-orogenic" infill of "neo-tectonic" tensional features. In the course of time, however, a shift can be observed in the temporal significance of these terms, from post-Eocene to post-Early Miocene to post-middle Pleistocene.[4]

The area is seismically and volcanically highly active. This is generally ascribed to the re-establishment of an equilibrium after the latest (mid-Pleistocene) deformation phase. Some authors believe that the subduction process is still ongoing, which is a matter of debate (van Dijk & Scheepers, 1995).[25]

History

Further information: Sicily (theme)
Magna Grecia around 280 BC

Calabria is one of the oldest regions of Italy with the first evidence of human presence dating as far back as 700,000 BC. Around 3,500 BC the first villages in Calabria sprung up.[26] At about 1500 BC Italic Oscan-speaking tribes settled in the region. Two of these tribes were the Oenotrians (translates to the "vine-cultivators") and the Itali. Greek contact with the latter would result in Calabria taking the name of the tribe and was the first region to be called Italy (Italia).[27][28][29][30][31] Greeks settled heavily along the coast during the 8th and 7th centuries BC and several of their settlements, including the first Italian city called Rhégion (Reggio di Calabria) and the next ones Sybaris, Kroton (Crotone), a settlement which spawned many ancient olympic victors and where the mathematician Pythagoras later resided, and Locri, which were among the leading cities of Magna Graecia during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The Greeks would create "Intellectual Property" in Sybaris[32] and also turn the city of Kroton into a center of philosophy, science and medicine with the help of Pythagoras and Alcmaeon. Locri would be renown for being the town where Zaleucus would create the first Western Greek law which was called the "Locrian Code".

The Greeks were conquered by the 3rd century BC by roving Oscan tribes from the north, including a branch of the Samnites called the Lucanians and an offshoot of the Lucanians called the Bruttii. The Bruttii conquered the Greek cities, established their sovereignty over present day Calabria and founded new cities, including their own capital, Cosenza (known as Consentia in the ancient times).

The Romans conquered the area in the 3rd century BC after the fierce Bruttian resistance, possibly the fiercest resistance the Romans had to face from another Italic people. At the beginning of the Roman Empire the region would form the Augustan Regio III Lucania et Bruttii of Roman Italy. After Alaric I (King of the Visigoths) sacked Rome in the year 410 he contracted malaria and died in Cosenza. Legend has it that he along with the treasure of Rome were buried under the bed of the Busento River.[33]

During the 6th century a new group of Greeks had arrived in Calabria called the Byzantines. The Byzantines thrived in Calabria and towns such as Stilo and Rossano achieved great wealth and status. Today these two towns still retain much of their Byzantine heritage. Their best examples of Byzantine architecture are their churches with Stilo's La Cattolica and Rossano’s San Marco Evangelista. The Byzantines are credited with giving Calabria her name from the term “kalos-bruo” meaning “fertile earth.”[33]

Around the year 800, Saracens began invading the shores of Calabria, attempting to wrest control of the area from the Byzantines. This group of Arabs had already been successful in Sicily and knew that Calabria was another key spot. The people of Calabria retreated into the mountains for safety. Although the Arabs never really got a stronghold on the whole of Calabria, they did control some villages while enhancing trade relations with the eastern world.[33] In 918, Saracens captured Reggio (which was renamed Rivà) and sold the majority of its population in the slave markets of Sicily and North Africa.[34] It is during this time of Arab invasions that many staples of today’s Calabrian cuisine came into fashion: citrus fruits and eggplants for example. Exotic spices such as cloves and nutmeg were also introduced.[33]

In the 1060s the Normans, under the leadership of Robert Guiscard's brother Roger, established a presence in this borderland, and organized a government along Byzantine lines that was run by the local Greek magnates of Calabria. In 1098, Roger named the equivalent of an apostolic legate by Pope Urban II, and later formed what became the Kingdom of Sicily. The administrative divisions created in the late medieval times were maintained right through to unification: Calabria Citeriore (or Latin Calabria) in the northern half and Calabria Ulteriore (or Greek Calabria) in the southern half. By the end of the Middle Ages, large parts of Calabria continued to speak Greek as their mother tongue.[35] During the 13th century a French chronicler who travelled through Calabria stated that “the peasants of Calabria spoke nothing but Greek”.[36] By the 15th and 16th centuries, the Greek spoken in Calabria was rapidly replaced by Latin, the dominant language of the Italian Peninsula through a process of Italianization.[37] Today, the last remnants of the Greek formerly spoken widely throughout Calabria can still be heard amongst the ethnically Greek Griko people of the Aspromonte mountains of southern Calabria.

Beginning with the subsequent Angevin rule, which ruled Calabria as part of the Kingdom of Naples, Calabria was ruled from Naples right up until unification with Italy. The kingdom came under many rulers: the Habsburg dynasties of both Spain and Austria; the Franco-Spanish Bourbon dynasty which created the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte, and then French Marshal Joachim Murat, who was executed in the small town of Pizzo. Calabria experienced a series of peasant revolts as part of the European Revolutions of 1848. This set the stage for the eventual unification with the rest of Italy in 1861, when the Kingdom of Naples was brought into the union by Giuseppe Garibaldi. The Aspromonte was the scene of a famous battle of the unification of Italy, in which Garibaldi was wounded.

Economy

Calabria is one of the least developed regions in Italy, although the high degree of tax evasion makes it difficult to verify these statistics. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Calabria is subdivided as follows: service industry (28.94%), financial activities and real estate (21.09%), trade, tourism, transportation and communication (19.39%), taxation (11.49%), manufacturing (8.77%), construction (6.19%) and agriculture (4.13%).[38] Its economy is hampered by the fact that it is beset by corruption and organized crime which is mainly run by the 'Ndrangheta (the local Mafia syndicate).

Manufacturing

Food and textile industries are the most developed and vibrant. Within the industrial sector, manufacturing contributes to a gross value added of 7.2%. In the manufacturing sector the main branches are foodstuff, beverage and tobacco with a contribution to the sector very close to the national average.[39] Over the recent decades have emerged some petrochemical, engineering and chemical industries, within the areas of Crotone, Vibo Valentia and Reggio Calabria.

Tourism

The 485 miles of its coast make Calabria a popular tourist destination during the summer. The low industrial development and the lack of large cities in much of its territory have allowed maintaining low levels of marine pollution. In fact, the region is considered by many a natural paradise, which attracts a number of tourists from all over Italy. Foreign tourism is still low compared to similar places, but it is growing each year. The most popular seaside destinations are: Tropea, Capo Vaticano, Pizzo, Scilla, Diamante, Amantea and Soverato.

In addition to the most popular coastal tourist destinations, the interior of Calabria is rich in history, traditions, art and culture that attract a discrete number of tourists. Cosenza is among the most important cultural cities of Calabria, with a rich historical and artistic patrimony. Fortresses, castles, churches, historic centers and cemeteries are common elements in the interior of Calabria.

Some mountain locations attract tourists even in winter. Sila and Aspromonte are two national parks that offer facilities for winter sports, especially in the towns of Camigliatello, Lorica and Gambarie.

Agriculture

Calabrian olive tree plantations

A typical feature is agricultural richness in Calabria. The region boasts the second highest number of organic farmers only after Sicily.[40] The olive tree, representing 29.6% of UAA and represents approximately 70% of tree crops.[39] The region is the second-highest for olive oil production.[41] The Bergamot orange is intensively cultivated, since the 18th century,[42] exclusively in coastal area nearby to Reggio, where it found its optimal geological and weather conditions: essence oil from Calabrian Bergamot reach the best quality in the world.

Infrastructure and transport

The seaport of Gioia Tauro

The main Calabrian ports are in Reggio and in Gioia Tauro. The Reggio port is equipped with five loading docks of a length of 1,530 metres. The Gioia Tauro port has seven loading docks with an extension of 4,646 metres; it is the largest in Italy and the seventh largest container port in Europe,[43] with a 2007 throughput of 3.7 million TEUs[44] from more than 3,000 ships.

The region is served by three heavily used roads: two national highways along the coasts (SS18 Napoli-Reggio and SS106 Reggio-Taranto) and the A3 motorway, which links Naples and Reggio, passing by Salerno and Cosenza along the old inland route.

In Calabria there are three main airports: one is situated in Reggio, a few kilometres from city centre, built in 1939 is chronologically the first airport in Calabria; another is located in Lamezia Terme municipality area, currently being the first airport in Calabria concerning the number of passengers per year; the other near the town of Crotone.[39]

Demographics

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1861 1,155,000—    
1871 1,219,000+5.5%
1881 1,282,000+5.2%
1901 1,439,000+12.2%
1911 1,526,000+6.0%
1921 1,627,000+6.6%
1931 1,723,000+5.9%
1936 1,772,000+2.8%
1951 2,044,000+15.3%
1961 2,045,000+0.0%
1971 1,988,000−2.8%
1981 2,061,000+3.7%
1991 2,070,000+0.4%
2001 2,011,000−2.9%
2010 2,012,000+0.0%
2014 (Est.) 1,980,533−1.6%
Source: ISTAT 2001

The following is a list of Calabrian municipalities with a population of over 20,000:[45]

  1. Reggio Calabria - 186,013 inhabitants
  2. Catanzaro - 93,265
  3. Lamezia Terme - 71,123
  4. Cosenza - 69,827
  5. Crotone - 61,529
  6. Corigliano Calabro - 40,533
  7. Rossano - 38,280
  8. Rende - 35,352
  9. Vibo Valentia - 33,857
  10. Castrovillari - 22,518
  11. Acri - 21,263
  12. Montalto Uffugo - 20,553

Population genetics

Y-Dna haplogroups were found at the following frequencies in Calabria : R1 (33.40%), E1b1b (15.80%), G (10.50%), I (1.75%).[46] R1 and I haplogroups are typical in West European populations while J and E1b1b consist of lineages with differential distribution within Europe which include regions in the parts of France, and Austria.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Calabria

Sister cities and countries

Administrative divisions

Calabria is divided into five provinces:

Province Population
Province of Cosenza 734,260
Province of Reggio Calabria 565,813
Province of Catanzaro 368,318
Province of Crotone 174,076
Province of Vibo Valentia 166,760

Main sights

The Riace bronzes, Greek bronzes, about 460-430 BC
The Byzantine church known as the Cattolica

Tourism in Calabria has increased over the years. The main tourist attractions are the coastline and the mountains. The coastline alternates between rugged cliffs and sandy beaches, and is sparsely interrupted by development when compared to other European seaside destinations. The sea around Calabria is clear, and there is a good level of tourist accommodation. The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio called the coast facing Sicily near Reggio Calabria "... the most beautiful kilometer in Italy" (il più bel chilometro d'Italia).[49][50] The primary mountain tourist draws are Aspromonte and La Sila, with its national park and lakes. Some other prominent destinations include:

Language

Although the official national language of Calabria has been Standard Italian since before unification in 1861, as a consequence of its deep and colourful history, Calabrian dialects have developed that have been spoken in the region for centuries. The Calabrian dialect is a direct derivative of the Latin language, and is closer to the words spoken in Latin than the standard Italian. Most linguists divide the various dialects into two different language groups. In the northern one-third of the region, the Calabrian dialects are considered part of the Neapolitan language (or Southern Italian) and are grouped as Northern Calabrian or Cosentino. In the southern two-thirds of the region, the Calabrian dialects are often grouped as Central and Southern Calabrian. In many respects, the Calabrian dialect is considered very similar to the Puglian/Salentine dialects spoken in Salento, the region situated on the "heel" of Italy. However, in isolated pockets, as well as some quarters of Reggio Calabria a variety of Occitan can also be found in certain communities and French has had an influence on many Calabrian words and phrases. In addition, since Calabria was once ruled by the Spanish, some Calabrian dialects exhibit Spanish derivatives.

Religion

Cathedral of Reggio Calabria

The majority of Calabrians are Roman Catholic. There are also communities of Evangelicals on the western coast. The most famous saint in Calabria and also the patron saint of the region is St. Francis of Paola.

Even though it is currently a very small community, there has been a long history of the presence of Jews in Calabria. The Jews have had a presence in the region for at least 1600 years and possibly as much as 2300 years. Calabrian Jews have had notably influence on many areas of Jewish life and culture. Although virtually identitical to the Jews of Sicily, the Jews of Calabria are considered a distinct Jewish population due to historical and geographic considerations. There is a small community of Italian Anusim who have resumed the Jewish faith.[53]

It is important to highlight the presence of Calabrians in Renaissance humanism and in the Renaissance. Indeed the Hellenistics in this period frequently came from Calabria maybe because of the Greek influence. The rediscovery of Ancient Greek was very difficult because this language had been almost forgotten. In this period the presence of Calabrian humanists or refugees from Constantinople was fundamental. The study of Ancient Greek, in this period, was mainly a work of two monks of the monastery of Seminara: Barlaam, bishop of Gerace, and his disciple, Leonzio Pilato. Leonzio Pilato, in particular, was a Calabrian born near Reggio Calabria. He was an important teacher of Ancient Greek and translator, and he helped Giovanni Boccaccio in the translations of Homer's works.

Cuisine

See also: Calabrian wine
'Nduja

The cuisine is a typical southern Italian Mediterranean cuisine with a balance between meat-based dishes (pork, lamb, goat), vegetables (especially eggplant), and fish. Pasta (as in Central Italy and the rest of Southern Italy) is also very important in Calabria. In contrast to most other Italian regions, Calabrians have traditionally placed an emphasis on the preservation of their food, in part because of the climate and potential crop failures. As a result, there is a tradition of packing vegetables and meats in olive oil, making sausages and cold cuts (Sopressata, 'Nduja), and, along the coast, curing fish- especially swordfish, sardines (sardelle rosamarina) and cod (Baccalà). Local desserts are typically fried, honey-sweetened pastries (Cudduraci, scalille or scalidde) or baked biscotti-type treats (such as 'nzudda).

Some local specialties include Caciocavallo Cheese, Cipolla rossa di Tropea (red onion), Frìttuli and Curcùci (fried pork), Liquorice (liquirizia), Lagane e Cicciari (a pasta dish with chickpeas), Pecorino Crotonese (Cheese of Sheep), and Pignolata.

In ancient times Calabria was referred to as Enotria (from Ancient Greek Οἰνωτρία - Oenotria, "land of wine"). According to ancient Greek tradition, Οἴνωτρος (Oenotrus), the youngest of the sons of Lycaon, was the eponym of Oenotria.[54] Some vineyards have origins dating back to the ancient Greek colonists. The best known DOC wines are Cirò (Province of Crotone) and Donnici (Province of Cosenza). 3% of the total annual production qualifies as DOC. Important grape varieties are the red Gaglioppo, and white Greco. Many producers are resurrecting local, ancient grape varieties which have been around for as long as 3000 years.[55]

Transportation

Airports

Seaports

Bridges

Calabria has the two highest bridges in Italy

Universities

There are 3 public universities in the region of Calabria

There is also the private University for Foreigners "Dante Alighieri" in Reggio Calabria.

Famous Calabrians

See also

References

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  2. ↑ EUROPA - Press Releases - Regional GDP per inhabitant in 2008 GDP per inhabitant ranged from 28% of the EU27 average in Severozapaden in Bulgaria to 343% in Inner London
  3. ↑ NASA - Clouds and Sunlight. Nasa.gov (2009-12-30). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 van Dijk, J.P., Bello, M., Brancaleoni, G.P., Cantarella, G., Costa, V., Frixa, A., Golfetto, F., Merlini, S., Riva, M., Toricelli, S., Toscano, C., and Zerilli, A. (2000, a); A new structural model for the northern sector of the Calabrian Arc. Tectonophysics, 324, 267-320.
  5. ↑ Argand, E. (1922); La tectonique de l'Asie. Comptes Rendus 3rd Int. Geol. Congr., Liège (Be), 1922, 1, 171-372.
  6. ↑ Boccaletti, M., and Guazzone, G. (1972, b); Evoluzione paleogeografica e geodinamica del Mediterraneo: i bacini marginali. Mem. Soc. geol. It., 13, 162-169.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ogniben, Leo (1973); Schema geologico della Calabria in base ai dati odierni. Geol. Romana, 12, 243-585.
  8. ↑ Ippolito, Felice (1959); Bibliografia geologica d'Italia, Vol. 4, Calabria. C.N.R., Roma
  9. ↑ Cortese, E. (1895); Descrizione geologica della Calabria. Mem. Descrit. Carta Geol. It., 9, 310 pp., Roma.
  10. ↑ Limanowski, Miesislas (1913); Die grosse kalabrische Decke. Bull. Int. Acad. Sc. Cracovie, Cl. Sc. Math. Nat., S.A., (6A), 370-385.
  11. ↑ Quitzov, H.W. (1935); Der Deckenbau des Kalabrischen Massivs und seine Randgebiete. Abh. d. Ges. d. Wiss. zu Gottingen, Mat. Phys. Kl., 3e Folge, H. 13, 63-197.
  12. ↑ Caire, André, Glangeaud, L., and Grandjaquet, C. (1960); Les grand traits structureaux et l'évolution de territoire calabro-sicilien (Italie méridionale). Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., ser. 7, v. 2, 915-938.
  13. ↑ Caire, André (1961); Remarques sur l'evolution tectonique de la Sicile. Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., 7 (3), 545-558.
  14. ↑ Grandjacquet, C., Glangeaud, L., Dubois, R., and Caire, A. (1961); Hypothèse sur la structure profonde de la Calabre (Italie). Rev. Geogr. Phys. Geol. Dyn., 4 (3), 131-147.
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  19. ↑ Burton, A.N. (1971); Carta Geologica della Calabria alla scala di 1:25.000, Relazione generale. Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, Servizio Bonifiche, Roma (It.), I.G.M. Firenze, 120 pp., 1971, 120 pp.
  20. ↑ Amodio-Morelli, L., Bonardi, G., Colonna,V., Dietrich, D., Giunta, G., Ippolito, F., Liguori, V., Lorenzoni, S., Paglionico, A., Perrone, V., Piccaretta, G., Russo, M., Scandone, P., Zanettin Lorenzoni, E., and Zuppetta, A. (1976); L'Arco calabro-peloritano nell'orogene appenninico-maghrebide. Mem. Soc. Geol. Ital., 17, 1-60.
  21. ↑ Dubois, Roland (1976); La suture calabro-apenninique Cretacee-Eocene et l'ouverture Tyrrhenienne neogene: etude petrographique et structurale de la Calabre centrale. These, Univ. de Paris, 1976, 567 pp.
  22. ↑ Grandjacquet, C., and Mascle, G. (1978); The structure of the Ionian sea, Sicily and Calabria-Lucania. In: Nairn, A.E.M., H. Kanes and F.G. Stehli (Eds). The ocean basins and margins, Plenum Press, 5, 257-329, New York.
  23. ↑ Moussat, E. (1983, Int. Rept.); Evolution de la mer Tyrrhenienne centrale et ses marges septentrionales en relation avec la néotectonique dans l'Arc calabrais. These 3e cycle, Univ. Pierre et M. Curie, Paris (Fr.), 122 pp.
  24. ↑ van Dijk, J.P. (1992, d); Late Neogene fore-arc basin evolution in the Calabrian Arc (Central Mediterranean). Tectonic sequence stratigraphy and dynamic geohistory. With special reference to the geology of Central Calabria. Geologica Ultrajectina, 92, 288 pp. ISBN 90-71577-46-5
  25. ↑ van Dijk, J.P., and Scheepers, P.J.J. (1995); Neogene rotations in the Calabrian Arc. Implications for a Pliocene-Recent geodynamic scenario for the Central Mediterranean. Earth Sci. Rev., 39, 207-246.
  26. ↑ http://www.lifeinitaly.com/tourism/calabria
  27. ↑ http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/OriginNameItaly.htm
  28. ↑ http://www.passionforitaly.info/Articles/904.html
  29. ↑ http://www.bellevacanze.it/tourism/index.php?set_lang_id=en&view_contenuto=19
  30. ↑ http://procopiocaterina.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/20104251023251.jpg
  31. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5szMbqDSWg
  32. ↑ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 http://bleedingespresso.com/calabria/history-of-calabria
  34. ↑ The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095, Hilmar C. Krueger, A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years, Vol.I, ed. Kenneth Meyer Setton, Marshall W. Baldwin, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955), 50-51.
  35. ↑ Eisner, Robert (1993). Travelers to an Antique Land: The History and Literature of Travel to Greece. University of Michigan Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-472-08220-9. The ancient Greek colonies from Naples south had been completely latinized, but from the fifth century AD onward Greeks had once again emigrated there when pressed out of their homeland by invasions. This Greek culture of South Italy was known in medieval England because of England’s ties to the Norman masters of Sicily. Large parts of Calabria, Lucania, Apulia, and Sicily were still Greek-speaking at the end of the Middle Ages. Even nineteenth-century travelers in Calabria reported finding Greek villages where they could make themselves understood with the modern language, and a few such enclaves are said to survive still.
  36. ↑ Vasil’ev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1971). History of the Byzantine Empire. 2, Volume 2. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 718. ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3. half of the thirteenth century Roger Bacon wrote the Pope concerning Italy, “in which, in many places, the clergy and the people were purely Greek.” An old French chronicler stated of the same time that the peasants of Calabria spoke nothing but Greek.
  37. ↑ Weiss, Roberto (1977). Medieval and Humanist Greek. Antenore. pp. 14–16. The zones of south Italy in which Greek was spoken during the later Middle Ages, were eventually to shrink more and more during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Some small areas were, however, able to remain Greek even after the Renaissance period. In Calabria, for instance, Greek may till be heard today at Bova, Condofuri, Roccaforte, Roghudi, and in a few isolated farms here and there. One hundred years ago, it was still spoken also at Cardeto, Montebello, and San Pantaleone; and the more we recede in time the larger are these areas. And what took place in Calabria happened also in Apulia, where many places which were still Greek-speaking as late as 1807 are now no longer so. The use of the Greek language in such areas during the later Middle Ages is shown by..
  38. ↑ REGIONE CALABRIA - Dipartimento 5 – Attività Produttive - Report - Analisi del sistema economico e produttivo regionale
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "Portraits of the Regions". DG REGIO of the European Commission. March 2004. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
  40. ↑ http://agronotizie.imagelinenetwork.com/agricoltura-economia-politica/2010/07/13/biologico-l-italia-resta-prima-in-europa/9665
  41. ↑ ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0007e/a0007e01.pdf
  42. ↑ Storia di Reggio di Calabria da'tempi primitivi sino all'anno di Cristo 1797 - Domenico Spano Bolani - Google Libri. Books.google.it. 1857. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  43. ↑ "World Port Rankings 2005". American Association of Port Authorities. May 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
  44. ↑ Van Marle, Gavin (2008-01-31). "Europe Terminals stretched to limit". Lloyds List Daily Commercial News. pp. 8–9.
  45. ↑ ISTAT DATA
  46. ↑ (n=57), Capelli et al. 2007, Y chromosome genetic variation in the Italian peninsula is clinal and supports an admixture model for the Mesolithic–Neolithic encounter
  47. ↑ "Sister and Friendship Cities". Burwood Council. 17 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  48. ↑ "Patto d’amicizia tra la Calabria ed il West Virginia" (PDF).
  49. ↑ "Guide to Reggio Calabria". Delicious Italy. 2012-05-08. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  50. ↑ "Regions -> Calabria". Insiders Abroad. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  51. ↑ youritaly.com - COSENZA CITY
  52. ↑ http://en.italy-holiday.com/calabria/Cosenza
  53. ↑ "Center for the Study of Jewry in Calabria and Sicily". Retrieved 11 September 2010.
  54. ↑ Pausanias, Description of Greece, Arcadia, 8.3.5, at Theoi Project
  55. ↑ The-Wine-Library Short Description of wine in Calabria
  56. ↑ List of world's busiest container ports
  57. ↑ "Sfalassa Bridge". HighestBridges.com. 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2013-03-26.

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