Black-tailed prairie dog

Black-tailed prairie dog
At Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge
Conservation status

Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
Genus: Cynomys
Species: C. ludovicianus
Binomial name
Cynomys ludovicianus
(Ord, 1815)
Black-tailed Prairie Dog range[2]

The black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus), is a rodent of the family Sciuridae found in the Great Plains of North America from about the USA-Canada border to the USA-Mexico border. Unlike some other prairie dogs, these animals do not truly hibernate. The black-tailed prairie dog can be seen above ground in midwinter. A black-tailed prairie dog town in Texas was reported to cover 64,000 km2 (25,000 sq mi) and included 400,000,000 individuals. Prior to habitat destruction, this species may have been the most abundant prairie dog in central North America. This species was one of two described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the journals and diaries of their expedition.

Description

Black-tailed prairie dogs are generally tan in color, with lighter-colored bellies. Their tails have black tips, from which their name is derived. Adults can weigh from 1.5 to 3 lb (0.68 to 1.36 kg), males are typically heavier than females. Body length is normally from 14 to 17 in (36 to 43 cm), with a 3 to 4 in (7.6 to 10.2 cm) tail.

Distribution

The historic range of the black-tailed prairie dog was from southern Saskatchewan to Chihuahua, Mexico,[3] and included portions of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.[4] As of 2007, black-tailed prairie dogs occur across most of their historic range, excluding Arizona;[5][6] however, their occupied acreage and populations are well below historic levels.[7]

Habits

Black-tailed prairie dogs are diurnal.[5][8][9] Above ground activity is reduced when rain or snow is falling and during days when the temperature exceeds 100°F (38°C).[8][9] They do not hibernate, but may become dormant for short periods.[8][9][10]

Habitat

Black-tailed prairie dogs are native to grassland habitats in North America. They inhabit shortgrass prairie,[6][11][12] mixed-grass prairie,[6][13][14][15][16][17] sagebrush steppe,[11][18] and desert grassland.[3][19]

Habitat preferences for the black-tailed prairie dog are influenced by vegetative cover type, slope, soil type, and amount of rainfall.[20] Their foraging and burrowing activities influence environmental heterogeneity, hydrology, nutrient cycling, biodiversity, landscape architecture, and plant succession in grassland habitats.[8][9][14][16][21][22]

Landscape-scale habitat characteristics

At Paignton Zoo, Devon, England

Black-tailed prairie dogs inhabit grasslands, including short- and mixed-grass prairie, sagebrush steppe, and desert grasslands. Shortgrass prairies dominated by buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), and western wheatgrass (Pascopyron smithii),[8][9][13][23] and mixed-grass prairies [6][13][14][15][16][17] that have been grazed by native and nonnative herbivores are their preferred habitat.[9][18] Slopes of 2% to 5% and vegetation heights between 3 and 5 inches (7–13 cm) are optimal for detecting predators and facilitating communication.[8][9][13]

In the Great Plains region, black-tailed prairie dog colonies commonly occur near rivers and creeks.[9] Of 86 colonies located in Mellette County, South Dakota, 30 were located on benches or terraces adjacent to a creek or floodplain, 30 occurred in rolling hills with a slope more than 5°, 20 were in flat areas, and six were in badland areas.[24] The slopes of playa lakes in the Texas Panhandle and surrounding regions are used as habitat for the black-tailed prairie dog.[25] Colonies in Phillips County, Montana, were often associated with reservoirs, cattle salting grounds, and other areas affected by humans.[20]

Black-tailed prairie dogs tolerate "high degrees" of disturbance over long periods of time. New colonies are rarely created on rangeland in "good" to "excellent" condition; however, continuously, long-term, heavily grazed land reduces habitat quality due to soil erosion.[26] Black-tailed prairie dogs may colonize heavily grazed sites, but do not necessarily specialize in colonizing overgrazed areas. Overgrazing may occur subsequent to their colonization.[27] Black-tailed prairie dogs were associated with areas intensively grazed by livestock and/or areas where topsoil had been disturbed by human activities in sagebrush-grassland habitat on the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Belknap Agency, Montana. Roads and cattle trails were found in 150 of 154 black-tailed prairie dog colonies, and colonies were located significantly closer to livestock water developments and homestead sites than randomly located points.[18]

Soil

At the National Zoo in Washington D.C.

Black-tailed prairie dog distribution is not limited by soil type, but by indirect effects of soil texture on moisture and vegetation. Colonies occur in many types of soil, including deep, alluvial soils with medium to fine textures, and occasionally gravel. Soil not prone to collapsing or flooding is preferred.[9] Though they do not select specific types of soil to dig burrows,[8] silty loam clay soils are best for tunnel construction.[9] Surface soil textures in colonies near Fort Collins, Colorado, varied from sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the top 6 inches (15 cm), with a sandy clay loam subsoil. In northern latitudes, black-tailed prairie dog colonies commonly occur on south aspects due to the dominance of grasses over shrubs and increased solar radiation during winter. Burrows usually occur on slopes more than 10°.[9]

Black-tailed prairie dogs mix the soil horizons by raising soil from deeper layers to the surface. This may significantly affect the texture and composition of soil at different layers. Their feces, urine, and carcasses also affect soil characteristics.[9]

Home range and population density

The home range and territorial boundaries of black-tailed prairie dogs are determined by the area occupied by an individual coterie. Coteries typically occupy about 1.0 acre (0.4 ha).[9]

Population density and growth are influenced by habitat quality [8] and are restricted by topographic barriers, soil structure, tall vegetation, and social conditions.[8][9] Urbanization and other types of human development may restrict colony size and spatial distribution. Most plains habitats support at least 13 black-tailed prairie dogs/ha.[9]

Cover requirements

Two adults

Subterranean burrows created by black-tailed prairie dogs serve as refuges from the external environment and are one of the most important features of their colonies. Burrows are used for breeding, rearing young, and hiding from predators, and are maintained from generation to generation, and serve as stabilizers on the physical and social aspects of the colony.[8] Black-tailed prairie dog nests are located underground in burrows and are composed of fine, dried grass. Nest material is collected throughout the year by both sexes and all age classes.[5][8] Tunnel depths in central Oklahoma were typically four to five feet (50–60 inches) deep.[28] Most colonies contain 20 to 57 burrows/acre.[8][9]

The three types of burrow entrances are: dome mounds, rimmed crater mounds, and entrances without structures around them. Entrance features may prevent flooding and/or aid in ventilation.[5][8][9] Dome mounds consist of loosely packed subterranean soil spread widely around the entrance of the burrow, and tend to be vegetated by prostrate forbs. Rimmed crater mounds are cone-shaped and constructed of humus, litter, uprooted vegetation, and mineral soil. Black-tailed prairie dogs compact the soil of these mounds with their noses, creating poor sites for seedling establishment.[15] Rimmed crater mounds may be used as wallowing sites for American bison. Burrow entrances without structures around them are usually located on slopes more than 10°.[8] The density of burrow openings depends on both substrate and duration of occupation of an area.[9]

Vegetation heights between three and five inches (7–13 cm) and a slope of 2° to 5° are optimal for detecting predators and facilitating communication among black-tailed prairie dogs.[8][9][13] Grazing cattle keep vegetation short in the vicinity of colonies, reducing susceptibility to predators and potentially expanding colony size.[8][9][19][23] Black-tailed prairie dogs were rarely seen feeding more than 16 feet (5 m) from colony edges in Wind Cave National Park.[16]

Diet

Cynomys ludovicianus gathering grass

Black-tailed prairie dogs are selective opportunists, preferring certain phenological stages or types of vegetation according to their needs.[8][13][29] When forage is stressed by grazing, drought, or herbicides, they change their diets quickly. Grasses are preferred over forbs,[9][23] and may comprise more than 75% of their diets, especially during summer.[23][29] Western wheatgrass, buffalo grass, blue grama [8][9][29] and sedges (Carex spp.) are preferred during spring and summer. Scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea) [8][14][23][29] and Russian thistle (Salsola kali) [30] are preferred during late summer and fall, but are sought out during every season.[9][14][23] During winter, plains prickly pear (Opuntia polyacantha), Russian thistle, and underground roots are preferred.[8][29] Shrubs such as rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata), saltbush (Atriplex spp.), and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) are also commonly eaten.[30] Water, which is generally not available on the short-grass prairie, is obtained from vegetation such as plains prickly pear.[29] Koford [9] estimated one black-tailed prairie dog eats approximately 7 lbs (3 kg) of herbage per month during summer.[30] Cutworms,[30] grasshoppers,[9] and old or fresh American bison scat are occasionally eaten.[5] For a detailed list of foods eaten by black-tailed prairie dogs by month, and ratings of those foods' forage value to cattle and sheep, see.[30] For a complete list of vegetation preferred by the black-tailed prairie dog, see.[31]

Social organization

Black-tailed prairie dogs live in colonies. Colony size may range from five to thousands of individuals, and may be subdivided into two or more wards, based on topographic features, such as hills. Wards are usually subdivided into two or more coteries, which are composed of aggregates of highly territorial, harem-polygynous social groups.[8][9] Individuals within coteries are amicable with each other and hostile towards outside individuals. At the beginning of the breeding season, a coterie is typically composed of one adult male, three to four adult females, and several yearlings and juveniles of both sexes. After the breeding season and prior to dispersal of juveniles, coterie size increases.[8]

Dispersal

Reasons for dispersal include new vegetative growth at colony peripheries, shortage of unrelated females in a coterie, harassment of females by juveniles, and probably an innate genetic mechanism responding to increased density within a colony. Males typically leave the natal territory 12 to 14 months after weaning, during May and June,[32] but dispersal may occur throughout the year. Females generally remain in their natal coterie territories for their lifetimes. Intercolony dispersers moved an average distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from their natal site.[32] Roads and trails may facilitate black-tailed prairie dog dispersal.[9]

Communication

Constantine Slobodchikoff and others assert that prairie dogs use a sophisticated system of vocal communication to describe specific predators.[33] According to them, prairie dog calls contain specific information as to what the predator is, how big it is and how fast it is approaching.[33] These have been described as a form of grammar. According to Slobodchikoff, these calls, with their individuality in response to a specific predator, imply prairie dogs have highly developed cognitive abilities.[33] He also asserts prairie dogs have calls for things that are not predators to them. This is cited as evidence that the animals have a very descriptive language and have calls for any potential threat.[33]

There is debate over whether the alarm calling of prairie dogs is selfish or altruistic. Prairie dogs possibly alarm others to the presence of a predator so they can protect themselves. However, the calls possibly are meant to cause confusion and panic in the groups and cause the others to be more conspicuous to the predator than the caller. Studies of black-tailed prairie dogs suggest alarm calling is a form of kin selection, as a prairie dog’s call alerts both offspring and kin of indirect descent, such as cousins, nephews and nieces.[34] Prairie dogs with kin close by called more often than those that did not. In addition, the caller may be trying to make itself more noticeable to the predator.[34] However, a predator seems to have difficulty determining which prairie dog is making the call due to its "ventriloquistic" nature.[34] Also, when a prairie dog makes a call, the others seem to not run into the burrows, but stand on the mounds to see where the predator is, making themselves visible to the predator.[34]

Perhaps the most conspicuous prairie dog communication is the territorial call or "jump-yip" display. A prairie dog will stretch the length of its body vertically and throw its forefeet into the air while making a call. A jump-yip from one prairie dog causes others nearby to do the same.[35]

Reproduction and development

Six-week-old black-tailed prairie dog
Two juveniles at the Rio Grande Zoo

Age of first reproduction, pregnancy rate, litter size, juvenile growth rate, and first-year survival of the black-tailed prairie dog vary depending on food availability.[16]

Mating

Minimum breeding age for the black-tailed prairie dog is usually two years,[5][8][9] but yearlings may breed if space and food are abundant.[8][9] In Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, 40% (213 individuals) of yearling females copulated and 9% successfully weaned a litter.[10]

The mating season occurs from late February through April, but varies with latitude and site location of the colony.[8][9] Estrus occurs for only one day during the breeding season.[10]

Reproductive success

In Wind Cave National Park, the mean percentage of adult females that weaned a litter each year was 47% ± 14%.[32] Reproductive success and survival may be greater in young colonies that have space for expansion. In a young colony (five years) with space for expansion, in Wind Cave National Park, 88% females were pregnant and 81% of young weaned, compared to an old colony (30 years) with no room for expansion, where 90% of females were pregnant and 41% of young were weaned.[16]

Gestation period and litter size

Black-tailed prairie dog gestation is 34 days.[5][8] Parturition occurs underground. Information about litter size at time of birth is unavailable, but the mean litter size observed above ground ranges from 3.0 to 4.9 young/litter.[8][9][10][32] Only one litter is produced each year.[10][32]

Development

In captivity, black-tailed prairie dog pups open their eyes at 30 days old.[8] Pups are altricial and remain below ground for up to seven weeks to nurse.[8][9][10] Maturity is complete at 15 months old.[8] Lifespan of the black-tailed prairie dog in the wild is unknown, but males more than three years old experience high mortality. Females may live longer than males.[8] According to Hoogland and others,[32] lifespan is about five years for males and seven years for females.

Mortality

Major mortality factors include predation, disease, infanticide, habitat loss, poisoning, trapping, and shooting.[5][10][11][32] Survival for the first year was 54% for females and less than 50% for males in Wind Cave National Park. Primary causes of death were predation and infanticide.[10] Infanticide partially or totally eliminated 39% (361 individuals) of all litters. Lactating females were the most common killers.[10] Mortality of young was highest due to heavy predation during the winter and early spring following birth.[8] Mortality increases with dispersal from a colony or coterie.[9]

Sylvatic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, can quickly eliminate entire black-tailed prairie dog colonies. Once infected, death occurs within a few days.[5][11] Black-tailed prairie dogs are also susceptible to diseases transmitted by introduced animals.[36]

Predators

The most common predators of black-tailed prairie dogs are coyotes (Canis latrans),[5][8][16][37] American badgers (Taxidea taxus),[5][9][16][37] bobcats (Lynx rufus),[5][8][37] golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos),[5][8][9][37] ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis),[5][37] red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis),[8] and prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis).[8][9][37] Although now very rare, black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) were once a major predator of the black-tailed prairie dog.[37]

Ecological role and threats

Black-tailed prairie dogs have been called "ecosystem engineers" due to their influence on the biotic and abiotic characteristics of their habitat, landscape architecture, and ecosystem structure and function.[3][38] Research suggests black-tailed prairie dogs are a keystone species[3][10][38] in some, but not all, geographic areas.[3] Black-tailed prairie dogs enhance the diversity of vegetation, vertebrates, and invertebrates through their foraging and burrowing activities and by their presence as prey items.[3][28][38][39] Grasslands inhabited by black-tailed prairie dogs support higher biodiversity than grasslands not occupied by them. See Ceballos and others [38] for a simplified diagram of black-tailed prairie dog activities and impacts in grassland ecosystem function and biological diversity.

Hundreds of species of vertebrates [6][40] and invertebrates[28] are associated with black-tailed prairie dog colonies. Vertebrate species richness on their colonies increases with colony size and density.[20] West of the Missouri River in Montana, 40% (100 species) of all vertebrate fauna in prairie habitats rely on black-tailed prairie dog colonies for food, nesting, and/or denning. Rare and declining species, such as the black-footed ferret,[6][37][40] swift fox (Vulpes velox), mountain plover (Charadrius montanus),[20] and burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia)[5] are associated with colonies.[6] Because their foraging activities keep plant development in a suppressed vegetative state with higher nutritional qualities,[19][40] herbivores, including red deer (Cervus elaphus), American bison, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), and domestic cattle often prefer foraging in black-tailed prairie dog colonies.[5][8][9][14][18][21][23][39][40] Animals that depend on herbaceous cover in sagebrush habitat, such as mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and sage grouse (Centrocercus spp.), may be deterred by the decreased vegetative cover on black-tailed prairie dog colonies.[17] For a list of vertebrate species associated with black-tailed prairie dog colonies, see.[41]

Biodiversity in shortgrass prairies may be at risk due to the reductions in distribution and occurrence of black-tailed prairie dog. Threats include fragmentation and loss of habitat, unregulated eradication or control efforts, and sylvatic plague.[6][7] As a result of habitat fragmentation and prairie dog eradication programs, colonies are now smaller and more fragmented than in presettlement times. Agriculture, livestock use, and other development have reduced habitat to 2% of its former range.[6] Fragmented colonies are more susceptible to extirpation, primarily by sylvatic plague. The effect of roads on black-tailed prairie dogs is debatable. Roads may either facilitate or hinder their movement, depending on the landscape setting. Roads may be easy routes for dispersal, but those with heavy automobile use may increase mortality.[11][18] Roads, streams, and lakes may serve as barriers to sylvatic plague.[11]

Conservation status

Kissing prairie dogs

Black-tailed prairie dogs are frequently exterminated from ranchland, being viewed as pests. Their habitat has been fragmented, and their numbers have been greatly reduced. Additionally, they are remarkably susceptible to plague.[42] In 2006, all eight appearances of plague in black-tailed prairie dog colonies resulted in total colony loss. Studies in 1961 estimated only 364,000 acres (1,470 km2) of occupied black-tailed prairie dog habitat in the United States. A second study in 2000 showed 676,000 acres (2,740 km2). However, a comprehensive study between 10 states and various tribes in 2004 estimated 1,842,000 acres (7,450 km2) in the United States, plus an additional 51,589 acres (208.77 km2) in Mexico and Canada. Based on the 2004 studies, the US Fish and Wildlife Service removed the black-tailed prairie dog from the Endangered Species Act Candidate Species List in August 2004.[43]

Interactions with domestic livestock

A black-tailed prairie dog eating a peanut

While black-tailed prairie dogs are often regarded as competitors with livestock for available forage, evidence of impacts on rangelands are mixed. Some research suggests they have either neutral or beneficial effects on rangeland used by livestock;[9][14][23][39] however, their effects on rangelands are not uniform.[17][21] In Cimarron National Grassland in southwest Kansas and adjacent private lands in Baca County, Colorado, some vegetational differences were detected between areas colonized by black-tailed prairie dogs and uncolonized areas, although not all differences were consistent between sample years. Species richness and diversity indices did not differ among colonized and uncolonized sites in either year, nor did the amount of bare ground. The authors conclude while prairie dogs alter shortgrass prairie such that the vegetation of colonies tends to be distinct from adjacent uncolonized areas, “prairie dogs do not substantially alter the essential character of shortgrass vegetation”.[22] Cattle neither significantly preferred nor avoided black-tailed prairie dog colonies in a study in the shortgrass steppe of northeastern Colorado. Cattle used colonies in proportion to the colony's availability, and grazed as intensively on colonies as on areas not occupied by black-tailed prairie dogs.[12]

Competitive interactions between black-tailed prairie dogs and domestic livestock for preferred forage species are unclear. Several studies suggest black-tailed prairie dogs avoid eating many plants that livestock prefer, and prefer many plants livestock avoid.[21][39] Conversely, on shortgrass prairie in Colorado, cattle and black-tailed prairie dogs had a 64% similarity in annual diets.[23]

Some changes in plant composition brought about by black-tailed prairie dogs may benefit livestock by encouraging an increase in plants more tolerant of grazing, such as needleleaf sedge (Carex duriuscula), sixweeks grass (Vulpia octoflora), and scarlet globemallow.[14][40] Grazing by black-tailed prairie dogs may also improve the nutritional qualities of some plants.[19][40] On a shortgrass prairie near Fort Collins, Colorado, plant species diversity was greater inside black-tailed prairie dog colonies than outside of colonies, and perennial grasses such as buffalo grass and forbs increased.[14] While black-tailed prairie dog colonies at Wind Cave National Park typically had lower levels of plant biomass and were dominated by forbs, plants growing on prairie dog colonies had higher leaf nitrogen concentrations than plants in mixed-grass prairie outside colonies. Foraging by black-tailed prairie dogs does not significantly affect steer weights.[23][39] While forage availability and use by cattle decreased in black-tailed prairie dog foraging areas, steer weight was not reduced significantly in either of two years of study at the USDA's Southern Great Plains Experimental Range near Woodward, Oklahoma. Nutrient cycling, increased soil fertility, and subsequent changes in forage quality partly compensated for reduced forage availability.[39]

Pet trade

Black-tailed prairie dogs were the most common prairie dog species collected in the wild for sale as exotic pets, until this trade was banned in 2003 by the United States federal government. Prairie dogs in captivity at the time of the ban are allowed to be possessed under a grandfather clause, but no more may be caught, traded, or sold, and transport is only permitted to and from a veterinarian under proper quarantine procedures. The ban was officially lifted on September 8, 2008.[44]

References

 This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document "Cynomys ludovicianus".

  1. ↑ Linzey, A. V. & NatureServe (Reichel, J. D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R.) (2008). Cynomys ludovicianus. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
  2. ↑ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) 2008. Cynomys ludovicianus. In: IUCN 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3
    http://www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 29 January 2015.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Davidson, Ana D.; Lightfoot, David C. (2006). "Keystone rodent interactions: prairie dogs and kangaroo rats structure the biotic composition of a desertified grassland" (PDF). Ecography 29 (5): 755–765. doi:10.1111/j.2006.0906-7590.04699.x.
  4. ↑ Hall, E. Raymond; Kelson, Keith R. 1959. The mammals of North America. New York: Ronald Press Company.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 Johnsgard, Paul A. 2005. Prairie dog empire: A saga of the shortgrass prairie. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Mulhern, Daniel W.; Knowles, Craig J. 1997. Black-tailed prairie dog status and future conservation planning. In: Uresk, Daniel W.; Schenbeck, Greg L.; O'Rourke, James T., tech. coords. Conserving biodiversity on native rangelands: symposium proceedings; 1995 August 17; Fort Robinson State Park, NE. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-298. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 19–29.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Luce, Robert J. 2006. A multi-state approach to black-tailed prairie dog conservation and management in the United States. In: Basurto, Xavier; Hadley, Diana, eds. Grasslands ecosystems, endangered species, and sustainable ranching in the Mexico-U.S. borderlands: conference proceedings. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 48–52.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 King, John A. 1955. Social behavior, social organization, and population dynamics in a black-tailed prairie dog town in the Black Hills of South Dakota. In: Contributions from the Laboratory of Vertebrate Biology. Number 67. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36 9.37 Koford, Carl B. 1958. Prairie dogs, whitefaces, and blue grama. Wildlife Monographs No. 3. Washington, DC: The Wildlife Society.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Hoogland, John L (2001). "Black-tailed, Gunnison's, and Utah prairie dogs reproduce slowly". Journal of Mammalogy 82 (4): 917–927. doi:10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0917:BTGSAU>2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 1383470.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Collinge, Sharon K.; Johnson, Whitney C.; Ray, Chris; Matchett, Randy; Grensten, John; Cully Jr., Jack F.; Gage, Kenneth L.; Kosoy, Michael Y. et al. (2005). "Landscape Structure and Plague Occurrence in Black-tailed Prairie Dogs on Grasslands of the Western USA". Landscape Ecology 20 (8): 941–955. doi:10.1007/s10980-005-4617-5.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Guenther, Debra A.; Detling, James K. (2003). "Observations of cattle use of prairie dog towns". Journal of Range Management 56 (5): 410–417. JSTOR 4003830.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Clippinger, Norman W. 1989. Habitat suitability index models: black-tailed prairie dog. Biol. Rep. 82 (10.156). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 Bonham, Charles D.; Lerwick, Alton. (1976). "Vegetation changes induced by prairie dogs on shortgrass range". Journal of Range Management 29 (3): 221–225. doi:10.2307/3897280. JSTOR 3897280.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Cincotta, Richard P.; Uresk, Daniel W.; Hansen, Richard M. 1989. Plant compositional change in a colony of black-tailed prairie dogs in South Dakota. In: Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Uresk, Daniel W.; Hamre, R. H., tech. coords. 9th Great Plains wildlife damage control workshop proceedings; 1989 April 17–20; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-171. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 171–177.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 Garrett, Monte G.; Hoogland, John L.; Franklin, William L (1982). "Demographic differences between an old and a new colony of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus)". The American Midland Naturalist 108 (1): 51–59. doi:10.2307/2425291. JSTOR 2425291.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Johnson-Nistler, Carolyn M.; Sowell, Bok F.; Sherwood, Harrie W.; Wambolt, Carl L. (2004). "Black-tailed prairie dog effects on Montana's mixed-grass prairie" (PDF). Rangeland Ecology & Management 57 (6): 641. doi:10.2111/1551-5028(2004)057[0641:BPDEOM]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1551-5028.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Craig J. Knowles (1986). "Some relationships of black-tailed prairie dogs to livestock grazing". Western North American Naturalist 46 (2): 198–203.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Long, Dustin; Truett, Joe. 2006. Ranching and prairie dogs. In: Basurto, Xavier; Hadley, Diana, eds. Grasslands ecosystems, endangered species, and sustainable ranching in the Mexico-U.S. borderlands: conference proceedings. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 87–89.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Reading, Richard P.; Beissinger, Steven R.; Grensten, John J.; Clark, Tim W. 1989. Attributes of black-tailed prairie dog colonies in northcentral Montana, with management recommendations for the conservation of biodiversity. In: Clark, Tim W.; Hinckley, Dan; Rich, Terrell, eds. The prairie dog ecosystem: managing for biological diversity. Montana BLM Wildlife Tech. Bull. No. 2. Billings, MT: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management: 13–27. In cooperation with: Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Coppock, D. L.; Detling, J. K.; Ellis, J. E.; Dyer, M. I. (1983). "Plant-herbivore interactions on a North American mixed-grass prairie". Oecologia 56 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1007/BF00378210. JSTOR 4216853.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Winter, Stephen L.; Cully, Jack F.; Pontius, Jeffrey S (2002). "Vegetation of prairie dog colonies and non-colonized shortgrass prairie" (PDF). Journal of Range Management 55 (5): 502–508. doi:10.2307/4003230. JSTOR 4003230.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.9 Hansen, Richard M.; Gold, Ilyse K. (1977). "Black-tailed prairie dogs, desert cottontails and cattle trophic relations on shortgrass range". Journal of Range Management 30 (3): 210–214. doi:10.2307/3897472. JSTOR 3897472.
  24. ↑ Hillman, Conrad N.; Linder, Raymond L.; Dahlgren, Robert B. (1979). "Prairie dog distribution in areas inhabited by black-footed ferrets". American Midland Naturalist 102 (1): 185–187. doi:10.2307/2425083. JSTOR 2425083.
  25. ↑ Pruett, Alison L.; Boal, Clint W.; Wallace, Mark C.; Whitlaw, Heather; Ray, Jim. 2004. Playa lakes as habitat reserves for black-tailed prairie dogs. In: Wallace, Mark C.; Britton, Carlton, eds. Research Highlights – 2004: Range, wildlife, and fisheries management. Volume 35. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University: 17.
  26. ↑ Rickel, Bryce. 2005. Chapter 3: small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. In: Finch, Deborah M., ed. Assessment of grassland ecosystem conditions in the southwestern United States: wildlife and fish—volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-135-vol. 2. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 35–69
  27. ↑ Stobodchikoff, C. N.; Robinson, Anthony; Schaack, Clark. 1988. Habitat use by Gunnison's prairie dogs. In: Szaro, Robert C.; Severson, Kieth E.; Patton, David R., technical coordinators. Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America: Proceedings of the symposium; 1988 July 19–21; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 403–408.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Wilcomb, Maxwell Jeffers, Jr. 1954. A study of prairie dog burrow systems and the ecology of their arthropod inhabitants in central Oklahoma. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. Dissertation.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Fagerstone, K. A.; Tietjen, H. P.; Williams, O. (1981). "Seasonal variation in the diet of black-tailed prairie dogs". Journal of Mammalogy 62 (4): 820–824. doi:10.2307/1380605. JSTOR 1380605.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Kelso, Leon H. 1939. Food habits of prairie dogs. Circ. No. 529. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1–15
  31. ↑ Roe, Kelly A.; Roe, Christopher M (2003). "Habitat selection guidelines for black-tailed prairie dog relocations". Wildlife Society Bulletin 31 (4): 1246–1253. JSTOR 3784475.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 Hoogland, John L.; Angell, Diane K.; Daley, James G.; Radcliffe, Matthew C. 1988. Demography and population dynamics of prairie dogs. In: Uresk, Daniel W.; Schenbeck, Greg L.; Cefkin, Rose, tech coords. 8th Great Plains wildlife damage control workshop proceedings; 1987 April 28–30; Rapid City, SD. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-154. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment station: 18–22.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Slobodchikoff, C. N. (2002) "Cognition and Communication in Prairie Dogs", In: The Cognitive Animal (pp. 257-264), M. Beckoff, C. Allen, and G. M. Burghardt (eds) Cambridge: A Bradford Book.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Hoogland, J.L. (1995) The Black- tailed Prairie Dog: Social Life of a Burrowing Mammal, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press
  35. ↑ Hoogland, J. 1996. Cynomys ludovicianus. Mammalian Species, 535: 1-10.
  36. ↑ Brown, David E.; Davis, Russell. 1998. Terrestrial bird and mammal distribution changes in the American Southwest, 1890–1990. In: Tellman, Barbara; Finch, Deborah M.; Edminster, Carl; Hamre, Robert, eds. The future of arid grasslands: identifying issues, seeking solutions: Proceedings; 1996 October 9–13; Tucson, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-3. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 47–64.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 37.7 Hillman, Conrad N. 1968. Life history and ecology of the black-footed ferret in the wild. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University. Thesis.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Ceballos, G; Pacheco, Jesús; List, Rurik (1999). "Influence of prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) on habitat heterogeneity and mammalian diversity in Mexico". Journal of Arid Environments 41 (2): 161–172. doi:10.1006/jare.1998.0479.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 O'Meilia, M. E.; Knopf, F. L.; Lewis, J. C. (1982). "Some consequences of competition between prairie dogs and beef cattle". Journal of Range Management 35 (5): 580–585. doi:10.2307/3898641. JSTOR 3898641.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 40.5 Sharps, Jon C.; Uresk, Daniel W (1990). "Ecological review of black-tailed prairie dogs and associated species in western South Dakota" (PDF). The Great Basin Naturalist 50 (4): 339–344.
  41. ↑ Campbell, Thomas M., III; Clark, Tim W (1981). "Colony characteristics and vertebrate associates of white-tailed and black-tailed prairie dogs in Wyoming". The American Midland Naturalist 105 (2): 269–276. doi:10.2307/2424745. JSTOR 2424745.
  42. ↑ Webb, C. T.; Brooks, C. P.; Gage, K. L.; Antolin, M. F. (2006). "Classic flea-borne transmission does not drive plague epizootics in prairie dogs". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (16): 6236–6241. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510090103. PMC 1434514. PMID 16603630.
  43. ↑ Black-tailed prairie dog United States Fish and Wildlife Service
  44. ↑ Federal Register: Control of Communicable Diseases; Restrictions on African Rodents, prairie dogs, and Certain Other Animals

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