B. R. Ambedkar

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
भीमराव रामजी आंबेडकर
Ambedkar as a young man
Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee
In office
29 August 1947 – 24 January 1950
1st Minister of Law and Justice
In office
15 August 1947 – September 1951
President Rajendra Prasad
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
Preceded by Position established
Labour Member, Viceroy's Executive Council
In office
1942–1946
Preceded by Feroz Khan Noon
Succeeded by Position abolished
Personal details
Born 14 April 1891
Mhow, Central Provinces, India (now in Madhya Pradesh)
Died 6 December 1956 (aged 65)
Delhi, India
Nationality Indian
Spouse(s) Ramabai (m. 1906)[1]
Savita Ambedkar (m. 1948)[2]
Alma mater University of Mumbai
Columbia University
University of London
London School of Economics
Religion Buddhism
Awards Bharat Ratna
Signature

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar ([bʱiːmraːw raːmdʑiː aːmbeːɽkər]; 14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known as Babasaheb, was an Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer who inspired the Modern Buddhist Movement and campaigned against social discrimination against Untouchables (Dalits), women and labour. He was Independent India's first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India.[3][4][5][6]

Ambedkar was a prolific student, earning a law degree and various doctorates from Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and gained a reputation as a scholar for his research in law, economics and political science. In his early career he was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities, where he became involved in the negotiations for India's independence campaigning by publishing journals advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits and contributing significantly to the establishment of the state of India. In 1956 he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits.[7][8][9][10]

In 1990, Ambedkar was posthumously conferred with the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award.[11][12][13][14] Ambedkar's legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture.

Early life and education

Ambedkar was born in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces (now in Madhya Pradesh).[15] He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, a ranked army officer at the post of Subedar and Bhimabai Murbadkar Sakpal.[16] His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambavade (Mandangad taluka) in Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra. Ambedkar was born into a poor low Mahar (dalit) caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination.[17] Ambedkar's ancestors had long been in the employment of the army of the British East India Company, and his father served in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment.[18]

Belonging to the Kabir panth, Ramji Sakpal encouraged his children to read the Hindu classics. He used his position in the army to lobby for his children to study at the government school, as they faced resistance owing to their caste. Although able to attend school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or assistance by the teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class. Even if they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste would have to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or the vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by the school peon, and if the peon was not available then he had to go without water; the situation he later in his writings described as "No peon, No Water".[19] He was required to sit on a gunny sack which he had to take home with him.[20]

Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkar's mother died. The children were cared for by their paternal aunt, and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daughters – Manjula and Tulasa – of the Ambedkars would go on to survive them. Of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar succeeded in passing his examinations and graduating to a high school. His original surname Ambavadekar comes from his native village 'Ambavade' in Ratnagiri district.[21] His Brahmin teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond of him, changed his surname from 'Ambavadekar' to his own surname 'Ambedkar' in school records.[21]

Higher education

Matriculation

In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Bombay where Ambedkar became the only untouchable enrolled at Elphinstone High School. In 1906, his marriage to a nine-year-old girl, Ramabai, was arranged.[1]

In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and in the following year he entered Elphinstone College, which was affiliated to the University of Bombay, becoming the first from his untouchable community to do so. This success provoked celebrations in his community and after a public ceremony he was presented with a biography of the Buddha by Dada Keluskar, the author and a family friend.[1]

Degree in Economics and Political science

By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and political science from Bombay University, and prepared to take up employment with the Baroda state government. His wife, by then 15 years old, had just moved his young family and started work, when he had to quickly return to Mumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913.[22]

Ambedkar as a student.

Postgraduation in Economics, Columbia University

In 1913, he moved to the United States. He had been awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (Sterling) per month for three years under a scheme established by the Gaekwad of Baroda that was designed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City. Soon after arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hall with Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who was to be a lifelong friend. He passed his M.A. exam in June 1915, majoring in Economics, with Sociology, History, Philosophy and Anthropology as other subjects of study; he presented a thesis, Ancient Indian Commerce.

Economics, Columbia University

In 1916 he completed his second thesis, National Dividend of India-A Historic and Analytical Study for another M.A. and finally he received his PhD in Economics in 1927[23] for his third thesis, after he left for London. On 9 May, he read his paper Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development before a seminar conducted by the anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser.

London School of Economics

In October 1916 he enrolled for the Bar course at Gray's Inn, and also at the same time enrolled at the London School of Economics where he started work on a doctoral thesis. But in June 1917 he was obliged to go back to India as the term of his scholarship from Baroda ended. However, he was given permission to return to submit his thesis within four years. His thesis was on the "Indian Rupee." Ambedkar came back to London at the first opportunity and completed his studies. At the London School of Economics he took a Master's degree in 1921 and in 1923 he took his D.Sc.in Economics, and the same year he was called to the Bar by Gray's Inn. His third and fourth Doctorates (Ll.D, Columbia, 1952 and Ll.D., Osmania, 1953) were conferred honoris causa.

Incidentally, in his journey (1917) he travelled separately from his collection of books, which were lost when the ship on which they were dispatched was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine.[22]

Opposition to untouchability

Ambedkar as a barrister in 1922

As Ambedkar was educated by the Princely State of Baroda, he was bound to serve it. He was appointed as Military Secretary to the Gaikwad but had to quit within a short time. He described the incident in his autobiography, Waiting for a Visa.[19] Thereafter he tried to find ways to make a living for his growing family. He worked as a private tutor, as an accountant, and established an investment consulting business, but it failed when his clients learned that he was an untouchable.[24] In 1918 he became Professor of Political Economy in the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai. Even though he was successful with the students, other professors objected to his sharing the same drinking-water jug that they all used.[25]

Ambedkar had been invited to testify before the Southborough Committee, which was preparing the Government of India Act 1919. At this hearing, Ambedkar argued for creating separate electorates and reservations for untouchables and other religious communities.[26] In 1920, he began the publication of the weekly Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in Mumbai with the help of Shahaji II (1874–1922), Maharaja of Kolhapur.[27]

Ambedkar went on to work as a legal professional. In 1926 he successfully defended three non-Brahmin leaders who had accused the Brahmin community of ruining India and were then subsequently sued for libel. Dhananjay Keer notes that "The victory was resounding, both socially and individually, for the clients and the Doctor".[28]

Protests

While practicing law in the Bombay High Court, he tried to uplift the untouchables in order to educate them. His first organised attempt to achieve this was the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, which was intended to promote education and socio-economic improvement, as well as the welfare of "outcastes", at the time referred to as depressed classes.[29] For the protection of Dalit rights he started many periodicals like Mook Nayak, Bahishkrit Bharat, and Equality Janta.[30]

He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with the all-European Simon Commission in 1925.[31] This commission had sparked great protests across India, and while its report was ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of recommendations for the future Constitution of India.[32]

By 1927 Ambedkar decided to launch active movements against untouchability. He began with public movements and marches to open up and share public drinking water resources. He also began a struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town.[33] In a conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classic Hindu text, the Manusmrti (Laws of Manu), for ideologically justifying the system of caste discrimination and “untouchability,” ceremonially burning copies of the ancient text. On 25 December 1927, thousands of people burnt copies of Manusmriti under leadership of Ambedkar.[34][35]

In 1930, Ambedkar launched Kalaram Temple movement. This was a non-violent movement for which he was preparing for three months. About 15000 volunteers assembled at Kalaram Temple satygraha making one of the greatest processions of Nashik. The procession was headed by a military band, a batch of scouts, women and men walked in discipline, order and determination to see the god for the first time. When they reached to gate, the gates were closed by Brahmin authorities. This movement was for human dignity and self-respect.[36]

Poona Pact

In 1932, British announced the formation of separate electorate for "Depressed Classes" in the Communal Award. Gandhi fiercely opposed a separate electorate for untouchables, saying he feared that such an arrangement would divide the Hindu community into two groups.[37][38][39] Gandhi protested by fasting while imprisoned in the Yerwada Central Jail of Poona. Following the fast, Congress politicians and activists such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and Palwankar Baloo organised joint meetings with Ambedkar and his supporters at Yerwada.[40] On 25 September 1932, the agreement known as Poona Pact was signed between Ambedkar (on behalf of the depressed classes among Hindus) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalf of the other Hindus). The agreement gave reserved seats for the depressed classes in the Provisional legislatures, within the general electorate and not by creating a separate electorate. Due to the pact, the depressed class received 148 seats in the legislature, instead of the 71 as allocated in the Communal Award earlier proposed by the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. The text uses the term "Depressed Classes" to denote Untouchables among Hindus who were later called Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act 1935, and the later Indian Constitution of 1950.[41][42]

Political career

In 1935, Ambedkar was appointed principal of the Government Law College, Mumbai, a position he held for two years. Settling in Mumbai, Ambedkar oversaw the construction of a house, and stocked his personal library with more than 50,000 books.[43] His wife Ramabai died after a long illness in the same year. It had been her long-standing wish to go on a pilgrimage to Pandharpur, but Ambedkar had refused to let her go, telling her that he would create a new Pandharpur for her instead of Hinduism's Pandharpur which treated them as untouchables. Speaking at the Yeola Conversion Conference on 13 October in Nasik, Ambedkar announced his intention to convert to a different religion and exhorted his followers to leave Hinduism.[43] He would repeat his message at numerous public meetings across India.

In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party, which contested in the 1937 Bombay election to the Central Legislative Assembly for the 13 reserved and 4 general seats and securing 11 and 3 seats respectively.[44]

Ambedkar published his book Annihilation of Caste in the same year. It strongly criticised Hindu orthodox religious leaders, the caste system in general[45] and included "a rebuke of Gandhi" on the subject.[46]

Ambedkar served on the Defence Advisory Committee[47] and the Viceroy's Executive Council as minister for labour.[47]

In his work Who Were the Shudras?, Ambedkar attempted to explain the formation of Untouchables. He saw the Shudras and Ati Shudras who form the lowest caste in the ritual hierarchy of the caste system, as being separate from Untouchables. Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the Scheduled Castes Federation, although it performed poorly in the elections held in 1946 for the Constituent Assembly of India.

Babasaheb Ambedkar contested from Bombay North in the first Indian General Election in 1952 but lost to the Congress candidates Narayan Kajrolkar, who had been his assistant once. Ambedkar became a member of Rajya Sabha, probably as an appointed member. He tried to enter Lok Sabha again in 1954 when he contested the by-election from Bhandara but he was placed third in the ballot won by Congress. By the time the second general election was held in 1957, Ambedkar had already passed away.

Ambedkar was also critical of Islam and its practices in South Asia. While justifying the Partition of India, he condemned the practice of child marriage, as well as the mistreatment of women, in Muslim society.

No words can adequately express the great and many evils of polygamy and concubinage, and especially as a source of misery to a Muslim woman. Take the caste system. Everybody infers that Islam must be free from slavery and caste. [...] [While slavery existed], much of its support was derived from Islam and Islamic countries. While the prescriptions by the Prophet regarding the just and humane treatment of slaves contained in the Koran are praiseworthy, there is nothing whatever in Islam that lends support to the abolition of this curse. But if slavery has gone, caste among Musalmans [Muslims] has remained.[48]

Drafting India's Constitution

People paying tribute at the central statue of Babasaheb Ambedkar in Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University in Aurangabad.

Upon India's independence on 15 August 1947, the new Congress-led government invited Ambedkar to serve as the nation's first Law Minister, which he accepted. On 29 August, he was appointed Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, charged by the Assembly to write India's new Constitution.[49]

Granville Austin has described the Indian Constitution drafted by Ambedkar as 'first and foremost a social document'. ... 'The majority of India's constitutional provisions are either directly arrived at furthering the aim of social revolution or attempt to foster this revolution by establishing conditions necessary for its achievement.'[50]

The text prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections for a wide range of civil liberties for individual citizens, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability and the outlawing of all forms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for extensive economic and social rights for women, and also won the Assembly's support for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and Other Backward Class, a system akin to affirmative action.[51] India's lawmakers hoped to eradicate the socio-economic inequalities and lack of opportunities for India's depressed classes through these measures.[52] The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly.[53]

Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet in 1951 following the stalling in parliament of his draft of the Hindu Code Bill, which sought to expound gender equality in the laws of inheritance and marriage.[54] Ambedkar independently contested an election in 1952 to the lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha, but was defeated in the Bombay (North Central) constituency by a little-known Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar, who polled 138137 votes compared to Ambedkar's 123576 votes.[55][56][57] He was appointed to the upper house, of parliament, the Rajya Sabha in March 1952 and would remain as member till death.[58]

Opposition to Article 370

Ambedkar opposed Article 370 in the Constitution of India, granting a special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir, which was included against his wishes. Balraj Madhok reportedly said, Ambedkar had clearly told Sk. Abdullah: "You wish India should protect your borders, she should build roads in your area, she should supply you food grains, and Kashmir should get equal status as India. But Government of India should have only limited powers and Indian people should have no rights in Kashmir. To give consent to this proposal, would be a treacherous thing against the interests of India and I, as the Law Minister of India, will never do it." Then Sk. Abdullah went to Nehru, who directed him to Gopal Swami Ayyangar, who approached Sardar Patel asking him to do something, as he said it was a matter of prestige for Nehru, who has promised Sk. Abdullah accordingly. Patel got it passed when Nehru was on a foreign tour. On the day the article came up for discussion, Ambedkar did not reply to questions on it though he did participate on other articles. All arguments were done by Krishna Swami Ayyangar.[59][60][61]

Economic planning

Ambedkar was the first Indian to pursue an Economics doctorate degree abroad.[62] According to him the industrialization and agricultural industry growth could enhance the economy of the nation.[63] He stressed on money investment in the agricultural industry as the primary industry of India.[64] According to Sharad Pawar, Ambedkar’s vision benefited the government in accomplishing the food security goal.[65] He supported economic and social development of the society for nations progress. He also emphasised on education, public hygiene, community health, residential facilities as the basic amenities.[63] His DSc thesis "The problems of Ruppee, its origin and solution (1923)" reveals the factors responsible for Rupee fall.[64] He proved the importance of price stability than exchange stability. He analysed the silver and gold rate exchange and its effect on Indian economy. He found out the reasons for the failure of British Indian economy’s public treasury.[64] He found the loss made by British rule on Indian development.[66]

He is creditworthy to establish Finance Commission of India. He did not support the income tax policy for the lower income group community. He contributed in Land Revenue Tax and excise duty policies to stabilise the Indian economy.[64] He played an important role in the land reform and the state economic development.[67] According to him, the caste system divided labours and it was one of the hurdles for the economic progress. He emphasised on free economy with stable rupee which India has adopted recently.[64] He advocated the birth control rate to develop the Indian economy. This policy has been adopted by Indian government as national policy for family planning. He emphasised on equal rights to women for economic development.[64] He laid the foundation of industrial relations after Indian independence.[67]

Formation of Reserve Bank of India

Ambedkar was an economist by training and until 1921 his career was as a professional economist. It was after that time that he became a political leader. He wrote three scholarly books on economics:

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), was based on the ideas that Ambedkar presented to the Hilton Young Commission.[68][70]<[71][72]

Second marriage

Ambedkar's first wife had died in 1935 following long illness. After the completion of the drafting of India's constitution in the late 1940s, Ambedkar went to Bombay for treatment. He was suffering from lack of sleep, had neuropathic pain in his legs and was taking both insulin and homeopathic medicines. There he met Dr. Sharada Kabir, a Saraswat Brahmin, whom he married on 15 April 1948, at his home in New Delhi. Doctors recommended that he needed a companion who was both a good cook and a possessor of medical knowledge and could thus take care of him.[73] She adopted the name Savita Ambedkar and took care of him for the rest of his life.[2]

Conversion to Buddhism

Dikshabhumi, a stupa at the site in Nagpur, where Ambedkar embraced Buddhism along with many of his followers

Ambedkar had considered converting to Sikhism, which saw oppression as something to be fought against and which for that reason appealed also to other leaders of scheduled castes. He rejected the idea after meeting with leaders of the Sikh community and concluding that his conversion might result in him having what scholar Stephen P. Cohen describes as a "second-rate status" among Sikhs.[74]

He studied Buddhism all his life, and around 1950, he turned his attention fully to Buddhism and travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to attend a meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists.[75] While dedicating a new Buddhist vihara near Pune, Ambedkar announced that he was writing a book on Buddhism, and that as soon as it was finished, he planned to make a formal conversion to Buddhism.[76] Ambedkar twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon.[77] In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha, or the Buddhist Society of India.[78] He completed his final work, The Buddha and His Dhamma, in 1956. It was published posthumously.[78]

After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Hammalawa Saddhatissa,[79] Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own conversion, along with his wife. He then proceeded to convert some 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him.[80][76] He prescribed the 22 Vows for these converts, after the Three Jewels and Five Precepts. He then traveled to Kathmandu in Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference.[77] His work on The Buddha or Karl Marx and "Revolution and counter-revolution in ancient India" remained incomplete.[81]

Death

Annal Ambedkar Manimandapam, Chennai
Bust of Ambedkar at Ambedkar Museum in Pune

Since 1948, Ambedkar had been suffering from diabetes. He was bed-ridden from June to October in 1954 owing to side-effects from his medication and failing eyesight.[76] He had been increasingly embittered by political issues, which took a toll on his health. His health worsened during 1955. Three days after completing his final manuscript The Buddha and His Dhamma, Ambedkar died in his sleep on 6 December 1956 at his home in Delhi.

A Buddhist cremation[82] was organised for him at Dadar Chowpatty beach on 7 December,[83] attended by half a million grieving people.[84] A conversion program was supposed to be organised on 16 December 1956.[85] So, those who had attended the cremation were also converted to Buddhism at the same place.[85]

Ambedkar was survived by his second wife, who died in 2003.[86] and his son Yashwant (known as Bhaiyasaheb Ambedkar).[87] Ambedkar's grandson, Ambedkar Prakash Yashwant, is the chief-adviser of the Buddhist Society of India,[88] leads the Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh[89] and has served in both houses of the Indian Parliament.[89]

A number of unfinished typescripts and handwritten drafts were found among Ambedkar's notes and papers and gradually made available. Among these were Waiting for a Visa, which probably dates from 1935–36 and is an autobiographical work, and the Untouchables, or the Children of India's Ghetto, which refers to the census of 1951.[76]

A memorial for Ambedkar was established in his Delhi house at 26 Alipur Road. His birthdate is celebrated as a public holiday known as Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti. He was posthumously awarded India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 1990.[90]

On the anniversary of his birth and death, and on Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din (14 October) at Nagpur, at least half a million people gather to pay homage to him at his memorial in Mumbai.[91] Thousands of bookshops are set up, and books are sold. His message to his followers was "educate, organise, agitate!".[92]

Legacy

A bookseller in Chaitya Bhoomi peddles Buddhist calendars and books by Ambedkar

Ambedkar's legacy as a socio-political reformer, had a deep effect on modern India.[93][94] In post-Independence India his socio-political thought has acquired respect across the political spectrum. His initiatives have influenced various spheres of life and transformed the way India today looks at socio-economic policies, education and affirmative action through socio-economic and legal incentives. His reputation as a scholar led to his appointment as free India's first law minister, and chairman of the committee responsible to draft a constitution. He passionately believed in the freedom of the individual and criticised equally both caste society. His allegation of Hinduism foundation of caste system, made him controversial and unpopular among the Hindu community.[95] His conversion to Buddhism sparked a revival in interest in Buddhist philosophy in India and abroad.[96]

Many public institutions are named in his honour, and the Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport in Nagpur, otherwise known as Sonegaon Airport. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar is also named in his honour. A large official portrait of Ambedkar is on display in the Indian Parliament building. Ambedkar was voted as the "Greatest Indian" in 2012 by a poll organised by History TV18 and CNN IBN. Nearly 20 million votes were cast, making him the most popular Indian figure since the launch of the initiative.[97][98] Due to his role in economics, Narendra Jadhav, a notable Indian economist,[99] has said that Ambedkar was "the highest educated Indian economist of all times."[100] Amartya Sen, said that Ambedkar is "father of my economics", Sen continues that "he was highly controversial figure in his home country, though it was not the reality. His contribution in the field of economics is marvelous and will be remembered forever."[101][102] Osho a spiritual teacher remarked "I have seen people who are born in the lowest category of Hindu law, the sudras, the untouchables,so intelligent: when India became independent, the man who made the constitution of India, Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar, was a sudra. There was no equal to his intelligence as far as law is concerned – he was a world-famous authority." [103] President Obama addressed the Indian parliament in 2010, and referenced Dalit leader Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the great and revered Human Rights champion and main author of India’s constitution.[104]

Ambedkar's political philosophy has given rise to a large number of political parties, publications and workers' unions that remain active across India, especially in Maharashtra. His promotion of Buddhism has rejuvenated interest in Buddhist philosophy among sections of population in India. Mass conversion ceremonies have been organised by human rights activists in modern times, emulating Ambedkar's Nagpur ceremony of 1956.[105] He is regarded as a Bodhisattva by some Indian Buddhists, though he never claimed it himself.[106] Outside India, at the end of the 1990s, some Hungarian Romani people drew parallels between their own situation and the situation of the downtrodden people in India. Inspired by Ambedkar's approach, they started to convert to Buddhism.[107]

In popular culture

Several movies, plays, and other works have been based on the life and thoughts of Ambedkar. Jabbar Patel directed the English-language film Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar in 2000 with Mammootty enacting the lead role. This biopic was sponsored by the National Film Development Corporation of India and the government's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. The film was released after a long and controversial gestation period.[108] David Blundell, professor of anthropology at UCLA and historical ethnographer, has established Arising Light – a series of films and events that are intended to stimulate interest and knowledge about the social and welfare conditions in India. Arising Light is a film on the life on Ambedkar and social welfare in India.[109] In Samvidhaan,[110] a TV mini-series on the making of the Constitution of India directed by Shyam Benegal, the pivotal role of B. R. Ambedkar was played by Sachin Khedekar. The play Ambedkar Aur Gandhi, directed by Arvind Gaur and written by Rajesh Kumar, tracks the two prominent personalities of its title.[111]

Bhimayana: Experiences of Untouchability is a graphic novel narrates episodes from the life of Ambedkar using Pardhan-Gond style by Durgabai Vyam and Subhash Vyam. The book published by Navayana Books was identified as one of the top 5 political graphic novel by CNN.[112] Author Prabhakar Joshi, began writing a biography of Ambedkar in Sanskrit in 2004. Joshi is a recipient of Maharashtra Government's 'Mahakavi Kalidas' award. The completed work, Bhimayan, comprises 1577 shlokas and is intended as an atonement for the injustice done to the young Bhimrao by some teachers.[113]

The Ambedkar Memorial has been constructed at Lucknow is dedicated in his memory. The chaitya consists of monuments showing his biography.[114][115]

Google commemorated his 124th birthday through a homepage Doodle on 14th April 2015.[116]

Writings and speeches

The Education Department, Government of Maharashtra (Mumbai) published the collection of Ambedkar's writings and speeches in different volumes.[117]

A new edition of The Annihilation of Caste, annotated and with an extended introduction by Arundhati Roy, is planned by an Indian press, Navayana, with a North American and British version being prepared by Verso Books[46]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1900s" (PHP). Retrieved 5 January 2012.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1940s". Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  3. ↑ "Do we really respect Dr Ambedkar or is it mere lip service?".
  4. ↑ "Ambedkar in Modi's quiver, says Gandhis insulted father of Indian Constitution".
  5. ↑ "Home for Ambedkar 'house'".
  6. ↑ "The Constitution of India: Role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar".
  7. ↑ "Religious conversion debate divides India".
  8. ↑ "Return to which home?".
  9. ↑ "Now, OBC outfit in Maharashtra plans mass ‘Ghar Wapsi’ into Buddhism".
  10. ↑ "Dalits throng Nagpur on Dhammachakra Pravartan Din".
  11. ↑ "Bharat Ratna: A brief history of award winners".
  12. ↑ "BSP chief Mayawati attacks BJP, says party was not happy when Ambedkar got Bharat Ratna".
  13. ↑ "Six Bharat Ratnas, but millions of Konkanis jobless".
  14. ↑ "BJP was not happy when Ambedkar got Bharat Ratna: Mayawati".
  15. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-231-13602-1. Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  16. ↑ Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1890s" (PHP). Archived from the original on 7 September 2006. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  17. ↑ "Mahar". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  18. ↑ Ahuja, M. L. (2007). "Babasaheb Ambedkar". Eminent Indians : administrators and political thinkers. New Delhi: Rupa. pp. 1922–1923. ISBN 8129111071. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Ambedkar, B. R. "Waiting for a Visa". Frances Pritchett, translator. Columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 24 June 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  20. ↑ KURIAN, SANGEETH. "Human rights education in schools". The Hindu.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Bhim, Eklavya". outlookindia.com. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1910s" (PHP). Retrieved 5 January 2012.
  23. ↑ "Bhimrao Ambedkar". columbia.edu.
  24. ↑ Keer, Dhananjay (1971) [1954]. Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. pp. 37–38. ISBN 8171542379. OCLC 123913369.
  25. ↑ Harris, Ian (ed.). Buddhism and politics in twentieth-century Asia. Continuum International Group.
  26. ↑ Tejani, Shabnum (2008). "From Untouchable to Hindu Gandi, Ambedkar and Depressed class question 1932". Indian secularism : a social and intellectual history, 1890-1950. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. pp. 205–210. ISBN 0253220440. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  27. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 1850654492.
  28. ↑ Keer, Dhananjay (1990) [1954]. "Man of The Hour". Dr. Ambedkar: life and mission (Third Edition ed.). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan Private Limited. pp. 63–64. ISBN 81-7154-237-9. OCLC 123913369.
  29. ↑ "Dr. Ambedkar". National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  30. ↑ Benjamin, Joseph (June 2009). "B. R. Ambedkar: An Indefatigable Defender of Human Rights". FOCUS (Japan: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center (HURIGHTS OSAKA)) 56.
  31. ↑ Thorat, Sukhadeo; Kumar, Narender (2008). B. R. Ambedkar:perspectives on social exclusion and inclusive policies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  32. ↑ Ambedkar, B. R. (1979). Writings and Speeches 1. Education Dept., Govt. of Maharashtra.
  33. ↑ "Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar". Maharashtra Navanirman Sena. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
  34. ↑ Kumar, Aishwary. "The Lies Of Manu". outlookindia.com.
  35. ↑ "Annihilating caste". frontline.in.
  36. ↑ Keer, Dhananjay (1990). Dr. Ambedkar : life and mission (3rd ed. ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan Private Limited. pp. 136–140. ISBN 8171542379.
  37. ↑ "Poona Pact - 1932". Britannica.com. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  38. ↑ "AMBEDKAR VS GANDHI: A Part That Parted". OUTLOOK. 20 August 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  39. ↑ "Museum to showcase Poona Pact". The Times of India. 25 September 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2015. Read 8th Paragraph
  40. ↑ Omvedt, Gail (2012). "A Part That Parted". Outlook India (The Outlook Group). Retrieved 12 August 2012.
  41. ↑ Sharma, Brij Kishore (2007). Introduction to the Constitution of India. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. Source: (accessed: Sat Dec 27, 2014)
  42. ↑ "Gandhi's Epic Fast".
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1930s" (PHP). Archived from the original on 6 September 2006. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  44. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 76–77. ISBN 1850654492.
  45. ↑ Mungekar, Bhalchandra (16–29 July 2011). "Annihilating caste". Frontline 28 (11). Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Deb, Siddhartha, "Arundhati Roy, the Not-So-Reluctant Renegade", New York Times Magazine, March 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-03-05.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005). Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 1850654492.
  48. ↑ Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji (1946). "Chapter X: Social Stagnation". Pakistan or the Partition of India. Bombay: Thackers Publishers. pp. 215–219. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
  49. ↑ "Some Facts of Constituent Assembly". Parliament of India. National Informatics Centre. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2011. On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up an Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of B. R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for India
  50. ↑ Austin, Granville (1999), The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation, Oxford University Press
  51. ↑ "Constituent Assembly Debates Clause wise Discussion on the Draft Constitution 15th November 1948 to 8th January 1949". Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  52. ↑ Sheth, D. L. (Nov 1987). "Reservations Policy Revisited". Economic and Political Weekly 22: 1957–1962. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
  53. ↑ "Constitution of India". Ministry of Law and Justice of India. Retrieved 10 October 2013.
  54. ↑ Chandrababu, B. S; Thilagavathi, L (2009). Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation. Chennai: Bharathi Puthakalayam. pp. 297–298. ISBN 8189909975.
  55. ↑ Dalmia, Vasudha; Sadana, Rashmi, eds. (2012). "The Politics of Caste Identity". The Cambridge Companion to Modern Indian Culture. Cambridge Companions to Culture (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0521516250.
  56. ↑ Guha, Ramachandra (2008). India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-06-095858-9.
  57. ↑ "Statistical Report On General Elections, 1951 to The First Lok Sabha: List of Successful Candidates" (PDF). Election Commission of India. pp. 83, 12. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
  58. ↑ Sabha, Rajya. "Alphabetical List of All Members of Rajya Sabha Since 1952". Rajya Sabha Secretariat. Serial Number 69 in the list
  59. ↑ amanadas, Dr. K. "Kashmir Problem From Ambedkarite Perspective". ambedkar.org. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
  60. ↑ Sehgal, Narender (1994). "Chapter 26: Article 370". Converted Kashmir: Memorial of Mistakes. Delhi: Utpal Publications. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
  61. ↑ Tilak. "Why Ambedkar refused to draft Article 370". Indymedia India. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
  62. ↑ IEA. "DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR’S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL THOUGHTS AND THEIR CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE". IEA NEWSLETTER The Indian Economic Association(IEA) (PDF). India: IEA publications. p. 10.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Mishra, edited by S.N. (2010). Socio-economic and political vision of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. pp. 173–174. ISBN 818069674X.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 64.4 64.5 Sarode, Jayashri Purushottam (March 2013). "Impact of Dr. B.R. Ambdekar's thoughts on Indian Economy" (PDF). International Indexed & Refereed Research Journal IV (42). Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  65. ↑ TNN (15 October 2013). "'Ambedkar had a vision for food self-sufficiency'". The Times of India. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  66. ↑ Zelliot, Eleanor (1991). "Dr. Ambedkar and America". A talk at the Columbia University Ambedkar Centenary. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Ingle, M R (September 2010). "RELEVANCE OF DR. AMBEDKAR’S ECONOMIC PHILOSOPHY IN THE CURRENT SCENARIO" (PDF). International Research Journal I (12). Retrieved 19 October 2013.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1
  69. ↑ http://www.onlineresearchjournals.com/aajoss/art/60.pdf
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 http://drnarendrajadhav.info/drnjadhav_web_files/Published%20papers/Dr%20Ambedkar%20Philosophy.pdf
  71. ↑ "Round Table India - THE PROBLEM OF THE RUPEE: ITS ORIGIN AND ITS SOLUTION (HISTORY OF INDIAN CURRENCY & BANKING)". Round Table India.
  72. ↑ "Ambedkar Lecture Series to Explore Influences on Indian Society". columbia.edu.
  73. ↑ Keer, Dhananjay (2005) [1954]. Dr. Ambedkar: life and mission. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. pp. 403–404. ISBN 81-7154-237-9. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  74. ↑ Cohen, Stephen P. (May 1969). "The Untouchable Soldier: Caste, Politics, and the Indian Army". The Journal of Asian Studies 28 (3): 460. doi:10.2307/2943173. (subscription required)
  75. ↑ Sangharakshita (2006). "Milestone on the Road to conversion". Ambedkar and Buddhism (1st South Asian ed.). New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 8120830237. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 76.3 Pritchett, Frances. "In the 1950s" (PHP). Archived from the original on 20 June 2006. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Ganguly, Debjani; Docker, John, eds. (2007). Rethinking Gandhi and Nonviolent Relationality: Global Perspectives. Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia 46. London: Routledge. p. 257. ISBN 0415437407. OCLC 123912708.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Quack, Johannes (2011). Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India. Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0199812608. OCLC 704120510.
  79. ↑ Online edition of Sunday Observer – Features. Sundayobserver.lk. Retrieved on 12 August 2012.
  80. ↑ Sinha, Arunav. "Monk who witnessed Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism".
  81. ↑ Buddha or Karl Marx – Editorial Note in the source publication: Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, Vol. 3. Ambedkar.org. Retrieved on 12 August 2012.
  82. ↑ "Life of Babasaheb Ambedkar".
  83. ↑ Sangharakshita (2006) [1986]. "After Ambedkar". Ambedkar and Buddhism (First South Asian Edition ed.). New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 162–163. ISBN 81-208-3023-7.
  84. ↑ Smith, edited by Bardwell L. (1976). Religion and social conflict in South Asia. Leiden: Brill. p. 16. ISBN 9004045104.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Kantowsky, Detlef (2003). Buddhists in India today:descriptions, pictures, and documents. Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
  86. ↑ "President, PM condole Savita Ambedkar's death". The Hindu. 30 May 2003.
  87. ↑ Kshīrasāgara, Rāmacandra (1994). Dalit movement in India and its leaders, 1857–1956. New Delhi: M D Publications pvt Ltd.
  88. ↑ "maharashtrapoliticalparties".
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 "Biographical Sketch, Member of Parliament, 13th Lok Sabha". parliamentofindia.nic.in.
  90. ↑ "Baba Saheb".
  91. ↑ "Homage to Dr Ambedkar: When all roads led to Chaityabhoomi".
  92. ↑ Ganguly, Debanji (2005). "Buddha, bhakti and 'superstition': a post-secular reading of dalit conversion". Caste, Colonialism and Counter-Modernity: : notes on a postcolonial hermeneutics of caste. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 172–173. ISBN 0-415-34294-5.
  93. ↑ Joshi, Barbara R. (1986). Untouchable!: Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement. Zed Books. pp. 11–14.
  94. ↑ Keer, D. (1990). Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Popular Prakashan. p. 61.
  95. ↑ Bayly, Susan (2001). Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 259.
  96. ↑ Naik, C.D (2003). "Buddhist Developments in East and West Since 1950: An Outline of World Buddhism and Ambedkarism Today in Nutshell". Thoughts and philosophy of Doctor B.R. Ambedkar (First ed.). New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. p. 12. ISBN 81-7625-418-5. OCLC 53950941.
  97. ↑ "The Greatest Indian after Independence: BR Ambedkar". IBNlive. 15 August 2012.
  98. ↑ "The Greatest Indian". historyindia.
  99. ↑ Planning Commission. "Member's Profile : Dr. Narendra Jadhav". Government of India. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  100. ↑ PISHAROTY, SANGEETA BAROOAH (26 May 2013). "Words that were". The Hindu. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  101. ↑ Face the People - FTP: Nobel laureate Amartya Sen on economic growth, Indian politics. YouTube. 22 July 2013.
  102. ↑ "Ambedkar my father in Economics: Dr Amartya Sen « Atrocity News". atrocitynews.com.
  103. ↑ The_Messiah_Volume_2 , pg 23.http://www.oshorajneesh.com/download/osho-books/western_mystics/The_Messiah_Volume_2.pdf
  104. ↑ Barack Obama's speech in Parliament http://www.declarationofempathy.org/u-s-president-barack-obama-on-dr-b-r-ambedkar/.
  105. ↑ "One lakh people convert to Buddhism". The Hindu. 28 May 2007.
  106. ↑ Michael (1999), p. 65, notes that "The concept of Ambedkar as a Bodhisattva or enlightened being who brings liberation to all backward classes is widespread among Buddhists." He also notes how Ambedkar's pictures are enshrined side-to-side in Buddhist Vihars and households in India|office = Labour Member in Viceroy's Executive Counciln Buddhist homes.
  107. ↑ "Magazine / Land & People: Ambedkar in Hungary". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 22 November 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  108. ↑ Viswanathan, S (24 May 2010). "Ambedkar film: better late than never". The Hindu.
  109. ↑ Blundell, David (2006). "Arising Light: Making a Documentary Life History Motion Picture on Dr B. R. Ambedkar in India". Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism 7. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  110. ↑ Ramnara (5 March 2014). "Samvidhaan: The Making of the Constitution of India (TV Mini-Series 2014)". IMDb.
  111. ↑ Anima, P. (17 July 2009). "A spirited adventure". The Hindu (Chennai, India). Retrieved 14 August 2009.
  112. ↑ Calvi, Nuala (23 May 2011). "The top five political comic books". CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  113. ↑ Vedic scholar pens Ambedkar's biography in Sanskrit. NDTV.com (10 July 2010). Retrieved on 12 August 2012.
  114. ↑ "DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR SAMAJIK PARIVARTAN STHAL". Department of Tourism, Government of UP, Uttar Pradesh. Retrieved 17 July 2013. NEW ATTRACTIONS
  115. ↑ "Ambedkar Memorial, Lucknow/India" (PDF). Remmers India Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Brief Description
  116. ↑ Gibbs, Jonathan (14 April 2015). [Doodle "B. R. Ambedkar's 124th Birthday: Indian social reformer and politician honoured with a Google Doodle"]. The Independent. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  117. ↑ Ambedkar, B. R. (1979), Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, writings and speeches, Mumbai: Education Dept., Government of Maharashtra, OL 4080132M
  118. ↑ "Riddle in Hinduism". Ambedkar.org. Retrieved 17 July 2010.

Further reading

  • Michael, S.M. (1999). Untouchable, Dalits in Modern India. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55587-697-5.
  • Beltz, Johannes; Jondhale, S. (eds.). Reconstructing the World: B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhism in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  • Sangharakshita, Urgyen. Ambedkar and Buddhism. ISBN 0-904766-28-4. PDF
  • Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). Ambedkar and Untouchability. Analysing and Fighting Caste. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Omvedt, Gail. Ambedkar: Towards an Enlightened India. ISBN 0-670-04991-3.
  • Gautam, C. (May 2000). Life of Babasaheb Ambedkar (Second ed.). London: Ambedkar Memorial Trust.
  • Kuber, W. N. Dr. Ambedkar: A Critical Study. New Delhi: People's Publishing House.
  • Bholay, Bhaskar Laxman (2001). Dr Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar: Anubhav Ani Athavani. Nagpur: Sahitya Akademi.
  • Kasare, M. L. Economic Philosophy of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. New Delhi: B. I. Publications.
  • Ahir, D. C. The Legacy of Dr. Ambedkar. Delhi: B. R. Publishing. ISBN 81-7018-603-X.
  • Ajnat, Surendra (1986). Ambedkar on Islam. Jalandhar: Buddhist Publ.
  • Fernando, W. J. Basil (2000). Demoralisation and Hope: Creating the Social Foundation for Sustaining Democracy—A comparative study of N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783–1872) Denmark and B. R. Ambedkar (1881–1956) India. Hong Kong: AHRC Publication. ISBN 962-8314-08-4.