Arnold–Chiari malformation

Chiari

A sagittal FLAIR MRI scan, from a patient with an Arnold-Chiari malformation, demonstrating tonsillar herniation of 7 mm
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 Q07.0
ICD-9 348.4,741.0
OMIM 207950
DiseasesDB 899
Patient UK Arnold–Chiari malformation
MeSH D001139

Chiari malformation, also known as Arnold–Chiari malformation, is a condition affecting the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum (the opening at the base of the skull), sometimes causing non-communicating hydrocephalus[1] as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) outflow.[2] The cerebrospinal fluid outflow is caused by phase difference in outflow and influx of blood in the vasculature of the brain. It can cause headaches, fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty swallowing, dizziness, nausea, tinnitus, impaired coordination, and, in severe cases, paralysis.[3]

Classification

In the late 19th century, Austrian pathologist Hans Chiari described seemingly related anomalies of the hindbrain; the so-called Chiari malformations I, II and III. Later, other investigators added a fourth (Chiari IV) malformation. The scale of severity is rated I – IV, with IV being the most severe. Types III and IV are very rare.[4]

Type Presentation Clinical Features
I

Can be congenital, or acquired through trauma. When congential, may be asymptomatic during childhood, but often manifests with headaches and cerebellar symptoms. Herniation of cerebellar tonsils .[5][6][7] Tonsillar ectopia of more than 3 mm below foramen magnum. Syringomyelia of cervical or cervicothoracic spinal cord can be seen. Sometimes the medullary kink and brainstem elongation can be seen. Syndrome of occipitoatlantoaxial hypermobility is an acquired Chiari I malformation in patients with hereditary disorders of connective tissue.[8] Patients who exhibit extreme joint hypermobility and connective tissue weakness as a result of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome or Marfan syndrome are susceptible to instabilities of the craniocervical junction; thus they are at risk for acquiring a Chiari malformation.

 Headache, neck pain, unsteady gait usually during childhood [5]
II Usually accompanied by a lumbar or lumbosacral myelomeningocele with tonsillar herniation below the foramen magnum.[5][9] As opposed to the less pronounced tonsillar herniation seen with Chiari I, there is a larger cerebellar vermian displacement. Low lying torcular herophili, tectal beaking, and hydrocephalus with consequent clival hypoplasia are classic anatomic associations.[10] The position of the torcular herophili is important for distinction from Dandy-Walker syndrome in which it is classically upturned. This is important because the hypoplastic cerebellum of Dandy-Walker may be difficult to distinguish from a Chiari malformation that has herniated or is ectopic on imaging. Colpocephaly may be seen due to the associated neural tube defect. Paralysis below the spinal defect [5]
III Associated with an occipital encephalocele containing a variety of abnormal neuroectodermal tissues. Syringomyelia and tethered cord as well as hydrocephalus is also seen.[5][11] Abundant neurological deficits [5]
IV Characterized by a lack of cerebellar development in which the cerebellum and brain stem lie within the posterior fossa with no relation to the foramen magnum. Associated with hypoplasia.[5][12] Equivalent to primary cerebellar agenesis.[13] Not compatible with life [5]
Syringomyelia associated with Chiari malformation

Other conditions sometimes associated with Chiari malformation include hydrocephalus,[14] syringomyelia, spinal curvature, tethered spinal cord syndrome, and connective tissue disorders[8] such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome[15] and Marfan syndrome.

Chiari malformation is the most frequently used term for this set of conditions. The use of the term Arnold–Chiari malformation has fallen somewhat out of favor over time, although it is used to refer to the type II malformation. Current sources use "Chiari malformation" to describe four specific types of the condition, reserving the term "Arnold-Chiari" for type II only.[16] Some sources still use "Arnold-Chiari" for all four types.[17]

Chiari malformation or Arnold–Chiari malformation should not be confused with Budd-Chiari syndrome,[18] a hepatic condition also named for Hans Chiari.

In Pseudo-Chiari Malformation, Leaking of CSF may cause displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and similar symptoms sufficient to be mistaken for a Chiari I malformation.[19]

Pathophysiology

The most widely accepted pathophysiological mechanism by which Chiari type I malformations occur is by a reduction or lack of development of the posterior fossa as a result of congenital or acquired disorders. Congenital causes include hydrocephalus, craniosynostosis (especially of the lambdoid suture), hyperostosis (such as craniometaphyseal dysplasia, osteopetrosis, erythroid hyperplasia), X-linked vitamin D-resistant rickets, and neurofibromatosis type I. Acquired disorders include space occupying lesions due to one of several potential causes ranging from brain tumors to hematomas.[20] Head trauma may cause cerebellar tonsillar ectopia, possibly because of dural strain. Additionally, ectopia may be present but asymptomatic until whiplash causes it to become symptomatic.[21] Posterior fossa hypoplasia causes reduced cerebral and spinal compliance.

Symptoms

The blockage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow may also cause a syrinx to form, eventually leading to syringomyelia. Central cord symptoms such as hand weakness, dissociated sensory loss, and, in severe cases, paralysis may occur.[26]

Chiari malformation and syringomyelia

Syringomyelia is a chronic progressive degenerative disorder characterized by a fluid-filled cyst located in the spinal cord. Its symptoms include pain, weakness, numbness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms or legs. Other symptoms include headaches, the inability to feel changes in the temperature, sweating, sexual dysfunction, and loss of bowel and bladder control. It is usually seen in the cervical region but can extend into the medulla oblongata and pons or it can reach downward into the thoracic or lumbar segments. Syringomyelia is often associated with Chiari malformation type I and is commonly seen between the C-4 and C-6 levels. The exact development of syringomyelia is unknown but many theories suggest that the herniated tonsils in Chiari malformation type I form a “plug” which does not allow an outlet of CSF from the brain to the spinal canal. Syringomyelia is present in 25% of patients with Chiari malformation.[27]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is made through a combination of patient history, neurological examination, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).[28] Magnetic resonance is considered the best imaging modality for Chiari malformation, and upright MRI is more than twice as sensitive as standard MRI for diagnosis of this condition.[21] Computed tomography (CT) was the most utilized technique before MRI. It has never been completely reliable, as it can miss spinal cord cavitations. Neuroradiological investigation is used to first discount any intracranial condition that could be responsible for intracranial pressure and tonsillar herniation. Neuroradiological diagnostics evaluate the severity of crowding of the neural structures within the posterior cranial fossa and their impact on the foramen magnum. Thin-section multiplanar CT with reformatted images is considered the best diagnostic approach for imaging of syringomyelia and prolapse of the vertebral column into the cranial cavity.[29]

The diagnosis of a Chiari II malformation can be made prenatally through ultrasound.[30][31]

Treatment

While there is no current cure, the treatments for Chiari malformation are surgery and management of symptoms, based on the occurrence of clinical symptoms rather than the radiological findings. The presence of a syrinx is known to give specific signs and symptoms that vary from dysesthetic sensations to algothermal dissociation to spasticity and paresis. These are important indications that decompressive surgery is needed for patients with Chiari Malformation Type II. Type II patients have severe brain stem damage and rapidly diminishing neurological response.[32][33]

Decompressive surgery[34] involves removing the lamina of the first and sometimes the second or third cervical vertebrae and part of the occipital bone of the skull to relieve pressure. The flow of spinal fluid may be accompanied by a shunt. Since this surgery usually involves the opening of the dura mater and the expansion of the space beneath, a dural graft is usually applied to cover the expanded posterior fossa.

A small number of neurological surgeons believe that detethering the spinal cord as an alternate approach relieves the compression of the brain against the skull opening (foramen magnum), obviating the need for decompression surgery and associated trauma. However, this approach is significantly less documented in the medical literature, with reports on only a handful of patients. It should be noted that the alternative spinal surgery is also not without risk.[35]

Complications of decompression surgery can arise. They include bleedings, damage to structures in the brain and spinal canal, meningitis, CSF fistulas, occipito-cervical instability and pseudomeningeocele. Rare post-operative complications include hydrocephalus and brain stem compression by retroflexion of odontoid. Also, an extended CVD created by a wide opening and big duroplasty can cause a cerebellar “slump”. This complication needs to be corrected by cranioplasty.[32]

In cases with brainstem dysfunction, anterior decompression may also be required. On April 24, 2009, a young patient with type 1 Chiari malformation was successfully treated with a minimally invasive endoscopic transnasal procedure followed by a posterior decompression and fusion by Richard Anderson and colleagues at the Columbia University Medical Center Department of Neurosurgery.[36] This technique was later published by Hankinson and colleagues in the Journal of Neurosurgery.[37]

Epidemiology

The prevalence of congenital Chiari I malformation, defined as tonsilar herniations of 3 to 5 mm or greater, was previously believed to be in the range of one per 1000 births, but is likely much higher.[8][38] Women are three times more likely than men to have a congenital Chiari malformation.[39] Type II malformations are more prevalent in people of Celtic descent.[38] A study using upright MRI found cerebellar tonsillar ectopia in 23% of adults with headache from motor-vehicle-accident head trauma. Upright MRI was more than twice as sensitive as standard MRI, likely because gravity affects cerebellar position.[21]

Cases of congenital Chiari malformation may be explained by evolutionary and genetic factors. Typically, an infant's brain weighs around 400g at birth and triples to 1100-1400g by age 11. At the same time the cranium triples in volume from 500cm3 to 1500cm3 to accommodate the growing brain.[40] During human evolution, the skull underwent numerous changes to accommodate the growing brain. The evolutionary changes included increased size and shape of the skull, decreased basal angle and basicranial length. These modifications resulted in significant reduction of the size of the posterior fossa in modern humans. In normal adults, the posterior fossa comprises 27% of the total intracranial space, while in adults with Chiari Type I, it is only 21%.[41] If a modern brain is paired with a less modern skull, the posterior fossa may be too small, so that the only place where cerebellum can expand is the foramen magnum, leading to development of Chiari Type I.[42] H. neanderthalensis had platycephalic (flattened) skull. Some cases of Chiari are associated with platybasia (flattening of the skull base).[43]

History

The history of Chiari malformation is described below and categorized by the year:

Society and culture

The condition was brought to the mainstream on the series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation in the tenth season episode "Internal Combustion" on February 4, 2010.[46] Chiari malformation was briefly mentioned on the medical drama House M.D. in the fifth season episode "House Divided"[47] and it was the focus of the sixth season episode "The Choice." It is also the focus of Private Practice Season 4 episode 4, where a pregnant woman is diagnosed with it. It was also mentioned in the medical drama A Gifted Man, in the first season episode "In Case of Separation Anxiety.".[48] Chairi malformation has also been featured in non-fiction TV shows. Season 5, Episode 2 of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition features a family where both mom and daughters have Chiari malformation. On the Discovery Health Channel's series Mystery Diagnosis, a young girl is diagnosed with Chiari malformation and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome in the first season episode "Blood and Fire".

Notable cases

References

  1. ↑ "Medscape: Medscape Access". Emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  2. ↑ Rosenbaum, RB; DP Ciaverella (2004). Neurology in Clinical Practice. Butterworth Heinemann. pp. 2192–2193. ISBN 0-7506-7469-5.
  3. ↑ "Chiari malformation: Symptoms". Mayo Clinic. November 13, 2008.
  4. ↑ "Arnold Chiari Malformation".
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Vannemreddy P, Nourbakhsh A, Willis B, Guthikonda B. (January 2010). "Congenital Chiari malformations". Neurology India 58 (1): 6–14. doi:10.4103/0028-3886.60387. PMID 20228456.
  6. ↑ Kojima A, Mayanagi K, Okui S (February 2009). "Progression of pre-existing Chiari type I malformation secondary to cerebellar hemorrhage: case report". Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo) 49 (2): 90–2. doi:10.2176/nmc.49.90. PMID 19246872.
  7. ↑ O'Shaughnessy BA, Bendok BR, Parkinson RJ et al. (January 2006). "Acquired Chiari malformation Type I associated with a supratentorial arteriovenous malformation. Case report and review of the literature". J. Neurosurg. 104 (1 Suppl): 28–32. doi:10.3171/ped.2006.104.1.28. PMID 16509477.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Milhorat TH, Bolognese PA, Nishikawa M, McDonnell NB, Francomano CA (December 2007). "Syndrome of occipitoatlantoaxial hypermobility, cranial settling, and chiari malformation type I in patients with hereditary disorders of connective tissue". Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 7 (6): 601–9. doi:10.3171/SPI-07/12/601. PMID 18074684.
  9. ↑ "Neuroradiology – Chiari malformation (I-IV)".
  10. ↑ "Cleveland Clinic Children's Hospital Pediatric Radiology Image Gallery". Cleveland Clinic. 2010. Archived from the original on 27 June 2010. Retrieved June 14, 2010.
  11. ↑ Arnold-Chiari Malformation at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  12. ↑ "Chiari Malformations – Department of Neurological Surgery".
  13. ↑ Yu, F.; Jiang, Q.-j.; Sun, X.-y.; Zhang, R.-w. (22 August 2014). "A new case of complete primary cerebellar agenesis: clinical and imaging findings in a living patient". Brain. doi:10.1093/brain/awu239.
  14. ↑ "Neuropathology For Medical Students".
  15. ↑ "Dr. Bland Discusses Chiari & EDS 4(10)". Conquerchiari.org. 2006-11-20. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  16. ↑ "Chiari malformation". Dorlands Medical Dictionary.
  17. ↑ Kaipo T. Pau. "Chapter XVIII.16. Developmental Brain Anomalies". In Jeffrey K. Okamoto et al. Case Based Pediatrics For Medical Students and Residents.
  18. ↑ "Code 453.0: Budd-Chiari Syndrome". 2008 ICD-9-CM Diagnosis.
  19. ↑ "Spontaneous Spinal Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks: Diagnosis".
  20. ↑ Loukas M, Shayota BJ, Oelhafen K, Miller JH, Chern JJ, Tubbs RS, Oakes WJ (2011). "Associated disorders of Chiari Type I malformations: a review". Neurosurg Focus 31 (3): E3. doi:10.3171/2011.6.FOCUS11112. PMID 21882908.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Freeman, MD (2010). "A case-control study of cerebellar tonsillar ectopia (Chiari) and head/neck trauma (whiplash).". Brain Injury 24 (7–8): 988–94. doi:10.3109/02699052.2010.490512. PMID 20545453. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
  22. ↑ "Current Pain and Headache Reports, Volume 11, Number 1". SpringerLink. 2011-08-06. doi:10.1007/s11916-007-0022-x. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  23. ↑ http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/OnCall/story?id=6711810
  24. ↑ "Department of Neurological Surgery – University of Washington". Depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  25. ↑ "Dysautonomia News – Winter/Spring 2006". Dinet.org. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  26. ↑ "Medscape: Medscape Access". Emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  27. ↑ Adnan BURINA, Dževdet SMAJLOVIĆ, Osman SINANOVIĆ, Mirjana VIDOVIĆ, Omer Ć. IBRAHIMAGIĆ (2009). "ARNOLD–CHIARI MALFORMATION AND SYRINGOMYELIA". Acta Med Sal 38: 44–46.
  28. ↑ http://www.chiariinstitute.com/Videos/index.html
  29. ↑ Massimo Caldarelli, Concezio Di Rocco (2004). "Diagnosis of Chiari I malformation and related syringomyelia: radiological and neurophysiological studies" (PDF). Childs Nerv Syst 20 (5): 332–335. doi:10.1007/s00381-003-0880-4. PMID 15034729.
  30. ↑ http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/95829683-10739206/content~db=all~content=a748966357
  31. ↑ Li-Gang Cui, Ling Jiang, Hua-Bin Zhang, Bin Liu, Jin-Rui Wang, Jian-Wen Jiaa, Wen Chen (2011). "Monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid flow by intraoperative ultrasound in patients with Chiari I malformation" (PDF). Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 113 (3): 173–176. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2010.10.011. PMID 21075511.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Alessia Imperato, Vincenzo Seneca, Valentina Cioffi, Giuseppe Colella and Michelangelo Gangemi (2011). "Treatment of Chiari malformation: who, when and how" (PDF). Neurological Sciences 32: 335–339. doi:10.1007/s10072-011-0709-y.
  33. ↑ J. Klekamp, U. Batzdorf, M. Samii and H. W. Bothe (1996). "The surgical treatment of Chiari I malformation". Acta Neurochirurgica 138 (7): 788–801. doi:10.1007/BF01411256. PMID 8869706.
  34. ↑ Guo F, Wang M, Long J et al. (2007). "Surgical management of Chiari malformation: analysis of 128 cases". Pediatr Neurosurg 43 (5): 375–81. doi:10.1159/000106386. PMID 17786002.
  35. ↑ "Perioperative Mortality".
  36. ↑ "Boy's Brainstem Saved By A Nose". Columbia Medical Center Department of Neurological Surgery. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
  37. ↑ Todd C. Hankinson, Eli Grunstein, Paul Gardner, Theodore J. Spinks, and Richard C. E. Anderson (2010). "Transnasal odontoid resection followed by posterior decompression and occipitocervical fusion in children with Chiari malformation Type I and ventral brainstem compression". J Neurosurg Pediatrics 5 (6): 549–553. doi:10.3171/2010.2.PEDS09362.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/chiari/detail_chiari.htm
  39. ↑ http://www.wichiaricenter.org/oth/Page.asp?PageID=OTH000006
  40. ↑ Nolte J. The human brain: an introduction to its functional anatomy. Philadelphia: Mosby; 2002
  41. ↑ Furtado SV, Reddy K, Hegde AS. Posterior fossa morphometry in symptomatic pediatric and adult Chiari I malformation. J Clin Neurosci 2009;16:1449–54
  42. ↑ Fernandes, Y. B., R. Ramina, C. R. Campos-Herrera and G. Borges (2013). "Evolutionary hypothesis for Chiari type I malformation." Med Hypotheses 81(4): 715–719
  43. ↑ Sgouros S, Kountouri M, Natarajan K. Skull base growth in children with Chiari malformation type I. J Neurosurg 2007;107:188–92
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 44.6 44.7 Schijman (2004). "History, anatomic forms, and pathogenesis of Chiari malformations". Child's nervous system 20 (5): 323. doi:10.1007/s00381-003-0878-y.
  45. ↑ Enersen, Daniel. "Julius Arnold". Whonamedit? A dictionary of medical eponyms. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
  46. ↑
  47. ↑ "clinic_duty: House MD – 5.22 House Divided". Community.livejournal.com. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  48. ↑
  49. ↑ "Rosanne Cash recovering from brain surgery - Entertainment - Celebrities - TODAY.com". MSNBC. 2011-10-26. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  50. ↑ "We all make fantastic blunders…". Telegraph. 2006-09-18. Retrieved 2015-03-13.
  51. ↑ "Bobby Jones Society | Chiari & Syringomyelia Foundation". Csfinfo.org. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
  52. ↑ http://www.chiariinstitute.com/testimonials/MIrwin.pdf
  53. ↑ http://www.cnn.com/2014/01/15/health/human-factor-clukey/index.html

External links