Arkhangelsk

Arkhangelsk (English)
Архангельск (Russian)
-  City[1]  -

View of Arkhangelsk at night

Location of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia
Arkhangelsk
Location of Arkhangelsk in Arkhangelsk Oblast
Coordinates: 64°32′N 40°32′E / 64.533°N 40.533°ECoordinates: 64°32′N 40°32′E / 64.533°N 40.533°E
Coat of arms
City Day Last Sunday of June[2]
Administrative status (as of May 2010)
Country Russia
Federal subject Arkhangelsk Oblast[1]
Administratively subordinated to city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk[3]
Administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast,[3] city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk,[3] Primorsky District[4]
Municipal status (as of March 2012)
Urban okrug Arkhangelsk Urban Okrug[5]
Administrative center of Arkhangelsk Urban Okrug,[5] Primorsky Municipal District[5]
Mayor[6] Viktor Pavlenko[6]
Representative body City Council of Deputies
Statistics
Area 294.42 km2 (113.68 sq mi)[7]
Population (2010 Census) 348,783 inhabitants[8]
- Rank in 2010 50th
Population (2013 est.) 350,985 inhabitants[9]
Density (2012) 1,185/km2 (3,070/sq mi)
Time zone MSK (UTC+03:00)[10]
Novo-Kholmogory 1584[11]
City status since 1584
Postal code(s)[12] 163000-163071
Dialing code(s) +7 8182[13]
Official website
Arkhangelsk on WikiCommons

Arkhangelsk (Russian: Архáнгельск; IPA: [ɐrˈxanɡʲɪlʲsk]), sometimes Archangel, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, in the north of European Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea. The city spreads for over 40 kilometers (25 mi) along the banks of the river and numerous islands of its delta. Arkhangelsk was the chief seaport of medieval Russia until 1703. A 1,133-kilometer (704 mi) long railway goes from Arkhangelsk to Moscow via Vologda and Yaroslavl. The city is also served by the Talagi Airport and a smaller Vaskovo Airport. Population: 348,783 (2010 Census);[8] 356,051 (2002 Census);[14] 415,921 (1989 Census).[15]

Coat of arms

The coat of arms of the city shows an archangel defeating a demon. The archangel alludes to the cityname in a canting way.

History

Early history

The area where Arkhangelsk is situated was known to the Vikings as Bjarmaland. Ohthere of Hålogaland told from his travels circa 890 of an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the place later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, there was a Viking raid on this area in 1027, led by Thorir Hund.

In 1989, an unusually impressive silver treasure was found by the mouth of Dvina, right next to present-day Arkhangelsk. It was probably buried in the beginning of the 12th century, and contained articles that may have been up to two hundred years old at that time.

Most of the findings were made up by a total of 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb) of silver, many of them coins. Jewelry and pieces of jewelry come from Russia or neighboring areas. The majority of the coins were German, but there was also a smaller number of Kufan, English, Bohemian, Hungarian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian coins.

It is hard to place this find historically until further research is completed. There are at least two possible interpretations. It may be a treasure belonging to the society outlined by the Norse source material. Generally such finds, whether from Scandinavia, the Baltic area, or Russia, are closely tied to well-established agricultural societies with considerable trade activity.

Alternatively, like the Russian scientists who published the find in 1992, one may see it as evidence of a stronger case of Russian colonization than previously thought.

Novgorodians arrive

In the 12th century, the Novgorodians established the Archangel Michael Monastery in the estuary of the Northern Dvina River.

The main trade center of the area at that time was Kholmogory, located 75 kilometers (47 mi) southeast of Arkhangelsk, up the Dvina River, about 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) downstream from where the Pinega River flows into the Dvina. Written sources indicate that Kholmogory existed early in the 12th century, but there is no archeological material to illuminate the early history of the town. It is not known whether this settlement was originally Russian, or if it goes back to pre-Russian times. In the center of the small town (or Gorodok) that is there today is a large mound of building remains and river sand, but it has not been archeologically excavated.

Norwegian-Russian conflict

Location of Arkhangelsk in northwestern Russia

The area of Arkhangelsk came to be important in the rivalry between Norwegian and Russian interests in the northern areas. From Novgorod, the spectrum of Russian interest was extended far north to the Kola Peninsula in the 12th century. However, here Norway enforced taxes and rights to the fur trade. A compromise agreement entered in 1251 was soon broken.

In 1411, Yakov Stepanovich from Novgorod went to attack Northern Norway. This was the beginning of a series of clashes. In 1419, Norwegian ships with five hundred soldiers entered the White Sea. The "Murmaners", as the Norwegians were called (cf. Murmansk), plundered many Russian settlements along the coast, among them the Archangel Michael Monastery.[16]

Novgorod managed to drive the Norwegians back. However, in 1478 the area was taken over by Ivan III and passed to the Grand Duchy of Moscow with the rest of the Novgorod Republic.

Trade with England, Scotland, and the Netherlands

Three English ships set out to find the Northeast passage to China in 1553; two disappeared, and one ended up in the White Sea, eventually coming across the area of Arkhangelsk. Ivan the Terrible found out about this, and brokered a trade agreement with the ship's captain. Trade privileges were officially granted to English merchants in 1555, leading to the founding of the Company of Merchant Adventurers, which began sending ships annually into the estuary of the Northern Dvina. Dutch merchants also started bringing their ships into the White Sea from the 1560s. Scottish and English merchants also traded in the 16th century; however, by the 17th century it was mainly the Dutch that sailed to the White Sea area.

Founding and further development

Plan of New Dvina Fort in Arkhangelsk

In 1584,[11] Ivan ordered the founding of New Kholmogory (which would later be renamed after the nearby Archangel Michael Monastery). At the time access to the Baltic Sea was still mostly controlled by Sweden, so while Arkhangelsk was icebound in winter, it remained Moscow's almost sole link to the sea-trade. Local inhabitants, called Pomors, were the first to explore trade routes to Northern Siberia as far as the trans-Urals city of Mangazeya and beyond. In December 1613, during the Time of Troubles, Arkhangelsk was besieged by Polish-Lithuanian marauders commanded by Stanislaw Jasinski (Lisowczycy), who failed to capture the fortified town.

In 1693, Peter the Great ordered the creation of a state shipyard in Arkhangelsk. A year later the ships Svyatoye Prorochestvo (Holy Prophecy), Apostol Pavel (Apostle Paul), and the yacht Svyatoy Pyotr (Saint Peter) were sailing in the White Sea. However, he also realized that Arkhangelsk would always be limited as a port due to the five months of ice cover, and after a successful campaign against Swedish armies in the Baltic area, he founded St. Petersburg in May 1703.

Icon of Archangel Michael, shown as protector of Arkhangelsk

In 1722, Peter the Great decreed that Arkhangelsk should no longer accept goods that amounted to more than was sufficient for the town (for so-called domestic consumption). It was due to the Tsar's will to shift all international marine trade to St. Petersburg. This factor greatly contributed to the deterioration of Arkhangelsk that continued up to 1762 when this decree was canceled.

Arkhangelsk declined in the 18th century as the Baltic trade became ever more important. In the early years of the 19th century, the arrest and prolonged detention by Russian authorities of John Bellingham, an English export representative based at Arkhangelsk, was the indirect cause of Bellingham later assassinating British Prime Minister Spencer Perceval.

Arkhangelsk's economy revived at the end of the 19th century when a railway to Moscow was completed and timber became a major export. The city resisted Bolshevik rule from 1918 to 1920 and was a stronghold of the anti-Bolshevik White Army supported by the military intervention of British-led Entente forces along an Allied expedition, including a North American contingent known as the Polar Bear Expedition.[17]

During both world wars, Arkhangelsk was a major port of entry for Allied aid. During World War II, the city became known in the West as one of the two main destinations (along with Murmansk) of the Arctic Convoys bringing supplies to assist the Russians who were cut off from their normal supply lines. During Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Archangelsk was one of two cities (the other being Astrakhan) selected to mark the envisaged eastern limit of Nazi control. This military operation was to be halted at this A-A line but never reached it in reality as the German forces failed to capture either of the two cities and also failed to capture Moscow.

Arkhangelsk was also the site of Arkhangelsk ITL, or the Archangels' Labour Camp, in the 1930s and 1940s.

Today, Arkhangelsk remains a major seaport, now open year-round due to improvements in icebreakers. The city is primarily a center for the timber and fishing industries.

On March 16, 2004, fifty-eight people were killed in an explosion at an apartment block in the city.

Administrative and municipal status

Arkhangelsk is the administrative center of the oblast[3] and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Primorsky District, even though it is not a part of it.[4] As an administrative division, it is, together with five rural localities, incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.[3] As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk is incorporated as Arkhangelsk Urban Okrug.[5]

City divisions

For administrative purposes, the city is divided into nine territorial okrugs:[18]

Economy

Nordavia (formerly Aeroflot Nord) airline has its head office on the grounds of the Talagi Airport in Arkhangelsk.[19]

Education

A monument to Peter the Great and STS Sedov tall ship near the sea terminal in Arkhangelsk are depicted on a 500-ruble banknote

Arkhangelsk was formerly home to Pomorsky State University and Arkhangelsk State Technical University which merged with several other institutions of higher learning in 2010 to form the Northern (Arctic) Federal University.

Arkhangelsk is also home to the Northern State Medical University, Makarov state Maritime Academy,and a branch of the All-Russian Distance Institute of Finance and Economics.

Culture

Rebuilding the city's Cathedral of the Archangel Michael
The Sutyagin House, claimed to be the world's tallest wooden single-family house

Mikhail Lomonosov came from a Pomor village near Kholmogory. A monument to him was installed to a design by Ivan Martos in 1829. A monument to Peter the Great was designed by Mark Antokolsky in 1872 and installed in 1914.

After its historic churches were destroyed during Joseph Stalin's rule, the city's main extant landmarks are the fort-like Merchant Yards (1668–1684) and the New Dvina Fortress (1701–1705). The Assumption Church on the Dvina embankment (1742–1744) was rebuilt in 2004.

In 2008, it was decided that the city's cathedral, dedicated to the Archangel Michael, which had been destroyed under the Soviets, would be rebuilt. The foundation stone was laid in November 2008 by the regional Bishop Tikhon.[20] As of 2015, the walls are nearing completion, and the cathedral, situated near the city's main bus station and river port, is expected to be completed and consecrated in 2017.[21]

Another remarkable structure is the Arkhangelsk TV Mast, a 151-meter (495 ft) tall guyed mast for FM-/TV-broadcasting built in 1964. This tubular steel mast has six crossbars equipped with gangways, which run in two levels from the mast structure to the crossbars. On these crossbars there are also several antennas installed (image).

An unusual example of local "vernacular architecture" was the so-called Sutyagin house. This thirteen-story, 44-meter (144 ft) tall[22][23] residence of the local entrepreneur Nikolay Petrovich Sutyagin was reported to be the world's, or at least Russia's, tallest wooden house. Constructed by Mr. Sutyagin and his family over the course of fifteen years (starting in 1992), without formal plans or a building permit, the structure deteriorated while Mr. Sutyagin spent a few years in prison on racketeering charges. In 2008, it was condemned by the city as a fire hazard, and the courts ordered it to be demolished by February 1, 2009.[22][24] On December 26, 2008, the tower was pulled down,[25][26] and the remainder of the building was dismantled manually by early February 2009.[27][28]

The promenade alongside River Dvina

The cultural life of Archangelsk includes:

Literature

Russian North, and, in particular, the area of Arkhangelsk, is notable for its folklore. Until the mid-20th century, fairy tales and bylinas were still performed on the daily basis by performers who became professionals. Starting from the 1890s, folkloric expeditions have been organized to the White Sea area and later to other areas of the Arkhangelsk Governorate in order to write down the tales and the bylinas, especially in Pomor dialects. In the 1920s, mostly due to the efforts of Anna Astakhova, these expeditions became systematic. By the 1960s, the performing art was basically extinct. These folkloric motives and fairy tales inspired the literary works of Stepan Pisakhov and Boris Shergin, who were both natives of Arkhangelsk.

Climate

Arkhangelsk experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification Dfc).

Climate data for Arkhangelsk
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 5.0
(41)		 5.2
(41.4)		 12.1
(53.8)		 25.3
(77.5)		 30.2
(86.4)		 32.1
(89.8)		 34.4
(93.9)		 33.4
(92.1)		 27.7
(81.9)		 18.3
(64.9)		 9.7
(49.5)		 5.8
(42.4)		 34.4
(93.9)
Average high °C (°F) −9.2
(15.4)		 −7.7
(18.1)		 −1.2
(29.8)		 5.4
(41.7)		 12.5
(54.5)		 18.7
(65.7)		 21.8
(71.2)		 18.0
(64.4)		 12.1
(53.8)		 4.8
(40.6)		 −2.5
(27.5)		 −6.4
(20.5)		 5.5
(41.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −12.8
(9)		 −11.4
(11.5)		 −5.5
(22.1)		 0.4
(32.7)		 6.9
(44.4)		 13.0
(55.4)		 16.3
(61.3)		 13.1
(55.6)		 8.2
(46.8)		 2.3
(36.1)		 −5.1
(22.8)		 −9.7
(14.5)		 1.3
(34.3)
Average low °C (°F) −16.5
(2.3)		 −15.1
(4.8)		 −9.4
(15.1)		 −3.9
(25)		 2.2
(36)		 7.7
(45.9)		 11.3
(52.3)		 8.9
(48)		 5.1
(41.2)		 0.1
(32.2)		 −7.7
(18.1)		 −13.4
(7.9)		 −2.6
(27.3)
Record low °C (°F) −45.2
(−49.4)		 −41.2
(−42.2)		 −37.1
(−34.8)		 −27.3
(−17.1)		 −13.7
(7.3)		 −3.9
(25)		 −0.5
(31.1)		 −4.1
(24.6)		 −7.5
(18.5)		 −21.1
(−6)		 −36.5
(−33.7)		 −43.2
(−45.8)		 −45.2
(−49.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 38
(1.5)		 29
(1.14)		 30
(1.18)		 30
(1.18)		 49
(1.93)		 61
(2.4)		 73
(2.87)		 70
(2.76)		 61
(2.4)		 67
(2.64)		 53
(2.09)		 46
(1.81)		 607
(23.9)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 30
(11.8)		 41
(16.1)		 47
(18.5)		 25
(9.8)		 7
(2.8)		 0
(0)		 0
(0)		 0
(0)		 0
(0)		 6
(2.4)		 12
(4.7)		 16
(6.3)		 184
(72.4)
Avg. precipitation days 10 9 8 7 8 10 9 11 12 13 13 13 123
Average relative humidity (%) 85 83 81 73 69 69 74 81 85 89 90 87 80.5
Mean monthly sunshine hours 12.4 56.0 111.6 207.0 254.2 291.0 319.3 207.7 117.0 49.6 12.0 0.0 2,104.6
Source #1: Pogoda.ru.net[29]
Source #2: World Meteorological Organization (precipitation days only)[30]

Sports

Vodnik's home stadium Trud, the arena for the final of the 2011–2012 season
Brides in Arkhangelsk

Bandy is the biggest sport in the city and is considered a national sport in Russia.[31] Vodnik, the local team, nine times became the Russian champion (1996–2000 and 2002–2005). Their home arena has the capacity of 10000.[32] Arkhangelsk hosted the Bandy World Championship for men in 1999 and 2003.[33] The 2011–2012 season Russian Bandy League final was played here on March 25, 2012.[34][35]

Notable people

International relations

Twin towns and sister cities

Arkhangelsk is twinned with:[36]

References

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Государственный комитет Российской Федерации по статистике. Комитет Российской Федерации по стандартизации, метрологии и сертификации. №ОК 019-95 1 января 1997 г. «Общероссийский классификатор объектов административно-территориального деления. Код 11 401», в ред. изменения №243/2014 от 18 апреля 2014 г.. (State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation. Committee of the Russian Federation on Standardization, Metrology, and Certification. #OK 019-95 January 1, 1997 Russian Classification of Objects of Administrative Division . Code 11 401, as amended by the Amendment #243/2014 of April 18, 2014. ).
  2. ↑ "www.arhcity.ru" (in Russian). Мэрия Архангельска. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Oblast Law #65-5-OZ
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Государственный комитет Российской Федерации по статистике. Комитет Российской Федерации по стандартизации, метрологии и сертификации. №ОК 019-95 1 января 1997 г. «Общероссийский классификатор объектов административно-территориального деления. Код 11 252», в ред. изменения №243/2014 от 18 апреля 2014 г.. (State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation. Committee of the Russian Federation on Standardization, Metrology, and Certification. #OK 019-95 January 1, 1997 Russian Classification of Objects of Administrative Division . Code 11 252, as amended by the Amendment #243/2014 of April 18, 2014. ).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Oblast Law #258-vneoch.-OZ
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Информация о мэре города (in Russian). Мэрия Архангельска. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  7. ↑ Паспорт города (in Russian). Мэрия Архангельска. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). "Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1" [2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1]. Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (2010 All-Russia Population Census) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
  9. ↑ Численность населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2013 года. — М.: Федеральная служба государственной статистики Росстат, 2013. — 528 с. (Табл. 33. Численность населения городских округов, муниципальных районов, городских и сельских поселений, городских населенных пунктов, сельских населенных пунктов)
  10. ↑ Правительство Российской Федерации. Федеральный закон №107-ФЗ от 3 июня 2011 г. «Об исчислении времени», в ред. Федерального закона №248-ФЗ от 21 июля 2014 г. «О внесении изменений в Федеральный закон "Об исчислении времени"». Вступил в силу по истечении шестидесяти дней после дня официального опубликования (6 августа 2011 г.). Опубликован: "Российская газета", №120, 6 июня 2011 г. (Government of the Russian Federation. Federal Law #107-FZ of June 31, 2011 On Calculating Time, as amended by the Federal Law #248-FZ of July 21, 2014 On Amending Federal Law "On Calculating Time". Effective as of after sixty days following the day of the official publication.).
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Энциклопедия Города России. Moscow: Большая Российская Энциклопедия. 2003. p. 25. ISBN 5-7107-7399-9.
  12. ↑ "List of postal codes" (in Russian). Russian Post. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
  13. ↑ Коды областных центров (PDF) (in Russian). Beeline. Retrieved August 26, 2011.
  14. ↑ Russian Federal State Statistics Service (May 21, 2004). "Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек" [Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000] (XLS). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002] (in Russian). Retrieved August 9, 2014.
  15. ↑ Demoscope Weekly (1989). "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров" [All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers]. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года[All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. Retrieved August 9, 2014.
  16. ↑ Жилинский, К. А. (1919). Крайний север Европейской России (in Russian). Кольские карты. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
  17. ↑ "Detroit's Polar Bears and their confusing war". The Detroit News. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
  18. ↑ Архангельский городской Совет народных депутатов. Решение №88 от 15 ноября 1991 г. «Об образовании территориальных городских округов». (Arkhangelsk City Council of People's Deputies. Decision #88 of November 15, 1991 On Establishing the City Territorial Okrugs. ).
  19. ↑ "Contact Us." Nordavia. Retrieved on June 29, 2010.
  20. ↑ "Archangelsk invests in new cathedral". Barents Observer. 25 November 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  21. ↑ "Construction of Arkhangelsk Cathedral". Barents Observer. 9 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Sutyagin House, Arkhangelsk, Russia: Standing tall. WorldArchitectureNews.com, Wednesday Mar 7, 2007. (Includes photo)
  23. ↑ According to other sources, twelve stories, 38 meters (125 ft)
  24. ↑ Ponomaryova, Hope (June 26, 2008). Гангстер-хаус: Самый высокий деревянный дом в России объявлен вне закона [Gangster house: Russia's tallest wooden house is now outlawed]. Rossiyskaya Gazeta (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  25. ↑ В Архангельске провалилась первая попытка снести самое высокое деревянное здание в мире [Arkhangelsk The first attempt to demolish the tallest wooden building in the world failed in Arkhangelsk]. NEWSru.com Realty (Недвижимость) (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. December 26, 2008. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  26. ↑ mihai055 (December 26, 2008). Сутягин, снос дома [Demolition of Sutyagin's house] (FLASH VIDEO) (in Russian). YouTube. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  27. ↑ В Архангельске разрушено самое высокое деревянное здание в мире [The tallest wooden building in the world has been destroyed in Arkhangelsk]. NEWSru.com Realty (Недвижимость) (in Russian). Moscow, Russia. February 6, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
  28. ↑ От самого высокого деревянного строения в мире осталась груда мусора [Only a heap of debris is left from the world's tallest wooden building] (FLASH VIDEO AND TEXT). Channel One Russia (in Russian). Moscow, Russia: Web-службой Первого канала. February 6, 2009. Retrieved December 29, 2009.
  29. ↑ "Weather and Climate-The Climate of Arkhangelsk" (in Russian). Weather and Climate. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  30. ↑ "World Weather Information Service – Arhangel'sk". World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations). Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  31. ↑ "Russian bandy players blessed for victory at world championship in Kazan". Tatar-Inform. January 21, 2011. Retrieved August 31, 2009.
  32. ↑ Стадион "Труд", Архангельск (in Russian). Федерация хоккея с мячом России. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
  33. ↑ Video from a home game against Baykal-Energiya from Irkutsk: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uAVZxVEoe0
  34. ↑ "Официальный сайт хоккейного клуба "Кузбасс" (Кемерово) — www.kuzbassbandyclub.ru". Kuzbassbandyclub.ru. 2011-11-27. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
  35. ↑ Video from the final of the Russian Championships in 2012
  36. ↑ Информация о городах-побратимах (in Russian). arhcity.ru. October 26, 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  37. ↑ "Ystävyyskaupungit (Twin Cities)". Oulun kaupunki (City of Oulu) (in Finnish). Retrieved 2013-07-27.

Sources

Further reading

External links