Yamhad
| Yamhad Halab | |||||
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 Yamhad Kingdom at its Greatest Boundaries | |||||
| Capital | Halab | ||||
| Languages | Amorite, Hurrian | ||||
| Religion |
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| Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||
| King, Great King [2][3] | |||||
| - | c. 1810 - c. 1780 BC | Sumu-Epuh | |||
| - | c. 1780 - c. 1764 BC | Yarim-Lim I | |||
| - | Mid 16th- c. 1525 BC | Ilim-Ilimma I | |||
| Historical era | Bronze Age | ||||
| - | Established | c. 1810 BC | |||
| - | Disestablished | c. 1525 BC | |||
| Area | |||||
| - | 1750 BC est.[2] | 43,000 km² (16,602 sq mi) | |||
| Today part of |  Syria Turkey | ||||
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Yamhad (also written Yamkhad or Jamhad) was an ancient Levantine kingdom centered at Ḥalab (or Ḥalba), modern day Aleppo, Syria,[4] (the name Yamhad is used synonymously with Halab).[5] The population was predominately Amorites, with a substantial Hurrian population who settled in the kingdom, adding the influence of their culture. The kingdom of Yamhad was powerful during the Middle Bronze Age, ca. 1810-1525 BC (Middle chronology). Its biggest rival was Qatna to the south. Yamhad was eventually destroyed by the Hittites then annexed by Mitanni in the sixteenth century BC.
Little of Aleppo has been excavated by archaeologists, since Aleppo was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site.[6] Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari.
History
Establishment
Aleppo had been a center of trade in northern Syria since the time of the Akkadian Empire, as the capital of the Kingdom of Armani. Aleppo was also an important religious center. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city.[7] The city was known as the "City of Hadad",[8] its fame as a Holy City [9][10] contributed to its later prominence.
According to Giovanni Pettinato, the city was the "alter ego" of Ebla until the sacking of both cities by the Akkadians under Sargon or Naram-Sin [11] Both kings claimed to have destroyed Ebla, and while Ebla was later rebuilt, its former glory was lost. The power vacuum in the region caused by its fall was filled by Aleppo, which apparently wasn't damaged as much as Ebla.
In the Old Babylonian period, the name Halab appears (as Ḥalba) for the first time,[12] as well as that of Yamhad. Yamhad is mentioned by King Yahdun-Lim of Mari as one of his enemies (even though he was married to a princess of Aleppo). A seal from Mari mentions Sumu-Epuh of the land of Yamhad, the father of Yarim-Lim I King of Yamhad [13]
Sumu-Epuh is the first attested ruler of Yamhad. Already lord of Alalakh, Tuba and Arpad, Sumu-Epuh consolidated the kingdom. He resisted Yahdun-Lim who campaigned in the north threatening Yamhad, by supporting the yaminite tribes against him [14] and forming an alliance with other Syrian states, including Tuttul against Yahdun-Lim who claims to have defeated yamhad,[15] but he was soon killed by his son Sumu-Yamam
Rivalry with Assyria and Qatna
the rise of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria was the most dangerous threat to yamhad, the Assyrian king was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant calling himself King of the World [16]
Shamshi-Adad surrounded yamhad by alliances with Charchemish and Urshu to the north, conquering Mari to the east and installing his son Yasmah-Adad as king, forcing Zimri-Lim the heir of mari to flee to Sumu-Epuh who welcomed him and later gave him the city of Alalakh
the most dangerous alliance was with Qatna, Ishi-Adad of Qatna married his daughter to Yasmah-Adad and became Shamshshi-Adad agent at Aleppo borders [17]
Sumu-Epuh apparently was killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad, after his death his son and successor Yarim-Lim I cemented his father kingdom turning it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia [18]
Yarim-lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad through alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal-pi-el II of Eshnunna
later Yarim-Lim married his daughter Shibtu to Zimri-Lim, in 1777 B.C he conquered Tuttul and installed Zimri-Lim as governor of the city, and after the death of the Assyrian king a year later he sent his armies with Zimri-Lim to regain mari and put Zimri-Lim back on his ancestors throne as a vassal to yamhad [19]
Expansion and Prosperity
the mighty king spent the next years subduing other Syrian city-states such as Ebla and Ugarit [2] through alliances or force and forcing Qatna into peace, as it lost it's ally the late Shamshi-Adad I and was left alone in the face of yamhad [20]
a sample of Yarim-Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari sent to the kings of the cities of Dēr and Diniktum which included a declaration of war against those two cities [21]
Yarim-Lim accomplishments elevated Yamhad into the status of great kingdom, the aleppan king title became : the Great King,[2][17] a tablet from the archives of Mari mentions : [ There is no king who is mighty by himself. Ten or fifteen kings follow Hammurabi the ruler of Babylon, a like number of Rim-Sin of Larsa, a like number of Ibal-pi-el of Eshnunna, a like number of Amud-pi-el of Qatanum, but twenty follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad ] [1]
 Legal case from Niqmi-Epuh, King of Yamhad To the king of Alalakh concerning the legacy of two houses |
Yarim-Lim I son Hammurabi I reign was peaceful, Aleppo remained the strongest Syrian kingdom for the next 150 years, Hammurabi was able to force Charchemish into Aleppan domination, he sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam,[22] the alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked mari and destroyed it, Hammurabi didn't attack Aleppo and relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful during the later years
Abba-El I son of Hammurabi I continued his father policy, during his reign a rebellion by Zitraddu governor of Irridu against Abbal-El brother Yarim-Lim was quashed and the city destroyed, Abba-El compensated his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh
after the death of Abba-El I his son ascended the throne of Aleppo as Yarim-Lim II,[23] he was succeeded by his son Niqmi-Epuh, the next aleppan kings reigns are sparsely documented, Niqmi-Epuh conquered the city of Arazik near Charchemish and was succeeded by his son Irkabtum who campaigned in the region of Nashtarbi east of the Euphrates against the Hurrian princes
Decline
Irkabtum was succeeded by his brother Yarim-Lim III, he fought a war against Qatna, but the fortunes of yamhad started to faint with the Hittites kingdom rising in the north, the weakening was obvious as Alalakh had became virtually independent under Ammitakum who declared himself King but not independent [24]
Even though Yamhad was getting weak, the king of Aleppo was still considered the mightiest king of the Syrian states as he was referred to as Great King by the Hittites hence he was the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king [3]
Yarim-Lim III had to face the Hittites king Hattusili I, Yarim-Lim was able to withstand the Hittites aggressions through alliances with the Hurrians. Hattusili chose not to attack Aleppo directly and began with conquering Yamhad vassals and Allies, starting with Alalakh in his second regnal year ca. 1648 BC (Middle chronology), he then turned to attack the hurrians in Urshu northeast of aleppo, he won despite of Aleppo and Charchemish military support, after that he conquered Khashshum.
it's not known when Yarim-Lim III died but he was succeeded by Hammurabi II, Hattusili finally attacked Aleppo, which ended in defeat,[25] the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death.[26]
Hattusili Campaigns considerably weakened Aleppo causing it to lose the status of Great kingdom, the ruler of Yamhad title became king instead of Great King.[27]
Hattusili was succeeded by his grandchild Mursili I who conquered Aleppo in ca. 1600 BC and destroyed yamhad as a major power in the Levant[28][29]
End of Yamhad
Mursili I left for Babylon and sacked it but was assassinated upon his return to Hattusa, his empire disintegrated which opened the way for the dynasty to continue
Aleppo was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again,[30] it was ruled by kings of which nothing but names is known, the first is Sarra-El who might have been the son of Yarim-Lim III,[31] then his son Abba-El II[32] whose seal appears on many of Niqmepa king of Alalakh texts
Ilim-Ilimma I,[33] probably the son of Abba-El II[34] ascended the throne but was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king Parshatatar of Mitanni and his son Idrimi fled and was later able to take Alalakh and continued the Line of Kings there [35] while Aleppo lost it's independence and stayed under the Mittanian rule .
aleppo was taken by the Hittites during the reign of Suppiluliuma I in the 14th century BC who installed his son Telipinus as king of Aleppo but the use of the name yamhad ended .
Kings of Yamhad
Dates are estimated and given by Middle chronology [3]
| King | Reigned | Title | Relation to Previous King |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sumu-Epuh | ca. 1810 BC – ca. 1780 BC | King | |
| Yarim-Lim I | ca. 1780 BC – ca. 1764 BC | Great King | Son |
| Hammurabi I | ca. 1764 BC – ca. 1750 BC | Great King | Son |
| Abba-El I | ca. 1750 BC – ca. 1720 BC | Great King | Son |
| Yarim-Lim II | ca. 1720 BC – ca. 1700 BC | Great King | Son |
| Niqmi-Epuh | ca. 1700 BC – ca. 1675 BC | Great King | Son |
| Irkabtum | ca. 1675 BC – ca. 1650 BC | Great King | Son |
| Yarim-Lim III | ca. 1650 BC – ca. 1625 BC | Great King | Brother |
| Hammurabi II | ca. 1625 BC – ca. 1600 BC | King | Son or Cousin |
| Sarra-El | Early 16th-century BC | King | Probable Brother |
| Abba-El II | Middle 16th century BC | King | Son |
| Ilim-Ilimma I | Middle 16th century BC - ca. 1525 BC | King | Probable Son |
Economy
Aleppo location has always been a factor in it's prominence as an economic center, yamhad economy was based on trade with Mesopotamia and Anatolia, the city of Emar,[36][17] was Halab port on the Euphrates, Alalakh with its proximity to the Sea was the port on the Mediterranean[37]
the actions of Yarim-Lim I proved vital for the kingdom economy , for he has secured the road between Babylon and Yamhad with his son in low the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia
Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions since as late as the 14th century BC texts of the so called (Syrian type) from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits
the invading of Mari by Babylon had a negative impact on trade between the two kingdoms as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari protection to the caravans crossing that road, which led Samsu-iluna to build strongholds up the river valley and to set colonies of mercenaries known as the Kassite Houses to protect the middle Euphrates area
those colonies evolved into semi independent polities that waged war against Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa which caused the trade to stop temporarily,[38] the markets of yamhad became a source of mountain (probably Anatolian) and Cypriot copper [39]
the economy remained prosperous until the Hittites Invasion in the beginning of the 16th century BC , Aleppo regained it's economical status after the Hittites withdrawal and remained a Commercial center even after the end of Yamhad thanks to its location.
People and Culture
The people of Yamhad were amorites, spoke the Amorite language and belonged to the amorite culture with Mesopotamian influence, the amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Baylonian palaces that were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls which suggest the employment of specialized labor, evidences exist for the presence of Minoan Aegean Frisco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of palaces in Qatna and Alalakh and Since Aleppo wasn't excavated, the architecture of the city can be imagined by looking into other cities in the area of that age, especially Alalakh which was subordinate to Aleppo with a king belonging to the Aleppan royal family[40]
Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian Iconography, Egyptian influence was minimum and limited to the Ankh, the seals of kings gives prominence to Syrian gods, the use of the Ankh cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals, it was merely a substitute to the cup held by the god[41]
Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style and was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim whose queen was Shibtu the daughter of Yarim-Lim I.[42]
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings, blending with the Amorites and spreading their culture. by ca. 1725 BC they constitute a sizable portion of the population.[43] the presence of large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Aleppo, evidenced by the worship of Hurrian gods Teshub, his wife Hebat and certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.[44]
Religion
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the people of Yamhad practiced the Amorite Religion,[45] and worshiped Semitic deities such as Astarte and Dagon, but Hadad was the most important deity and the head of the Pantheon,[46] he was known as the storm god of Halab since the middle of the Third Millennium BC
The main temple of Hadad was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city, it remained in use from the 24th century BC [47] to at least the 9th century BC,[48] as evidenced by reliefs discovered at the it during excavations by German archaeologist Kay Kohlmeyer
the title Beloved of Hadad was one of the king titles, [49] Hadad was the kingdom patron God , all treaties were Concluded in his name, he was used to threat other kingdoms[50] and to declare wars.[51]
As the hurrian presence grow, so did the hurrian religious effects, hurrian deities found a place in the Aleppan pantheon, king Abba-El I thanked hurrian Goddess hebat for his victory in one of Alalakh Tablets, Hebat was Teshub wife but in Abba-El I tablet she is associated with Hadad,[44] later in history the hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad who became Teshub the storm god of Halab.[52]
See also
References
Citations
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Stephanie Dalley. Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. p. 44.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Gordon Douglas Young. Ugarit in Retrospect. p. 7.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 William J. Hamblin. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 258.
- ↑ Martin Sicker (2000). The pre-Islamic Middle East (Hardcover ed.). Praeger. p. 26. ISBN 0-275-96890-1.
- ↑ D. T. Potts. A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 781.
- ↑ prof : Ahmad Arhim Hebbo. History of Ancient Levant (part 1) Syria.
- ↑ Trevor Bryce. Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 111.
- ↑ Lluís Feliu. The God Dagan in Bronze Age Syria. p. 192.
- ↑ Ulf Oldenburg. The Conflict Between El and Ba'al in Canaanite Religion. p. 65.
- ↑ Ehud Ben Zvi. Perspectives on Biblical Hebrew: Comprising the Contents of Journal of Hebrew Scriptures , Volumes 1-4. p. 633.
- ↑ Giovanni Pettinato. Ebla, a new look at history.
- ↑ John David Hawkins. Inscriptions of the Iron Age: Part 1. p. 388.
- ↑ Douglas Frayne. Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 780.
- ↑ Arne Wossink. Challenging Climate Change: Competition and Cooperation Among Pastoralists and Agriculturalists in Northern Mesopotamia. p. 128.
- ↑ Douglas Frayne. Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 606.
- ↑ Joan Aruz, Sarah B. Graff, and Yelena Rakic. Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC. p. 9.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Mario Liverani. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. p. 234.
- ↑ Michael David Coogan. The Oxford History of the Biblical World.
- ↑ William J. Hamblin. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 259.
- ↑ Michael David Coogan. The Oxford History of the Biblical World.
- ↑ Jack M. Sasson. The Military Establishments at Mari. p. 2+3.
- ↑ Dominique Charpin. Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. p. 102.
- ↑ Jimmy Jack McBee Roberts. The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Collected Essays. p. 150.
- ↑ THOMAS, D. WINTON. Archaeology and Old Testament study: jubilee volume of the Society for Old Testament Study, 1917-1967. p. 121.
- ↑ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 33.
- ↑ Trevor Bryce. Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 29.
- ↑ Trevor Bryce. The Kingdom of the Hittites. p. 152.
- ↑ William J. Hamblin. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 260.
- ↑ Gordon Douglas Young. Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit and Ugaritic. p. 9.
- ↑ Trevor Bryce. The Kingdom of the Hittites. p. 126.
- ↑ M.C. Astour. Orientalia: Vol. 38. p. 382.
- ↑ D. Winton Thomas. Archaeology and Old Testament study: jubilee volume of the Society for Old Testament Study, 1917-1967. p. 153.
- ↑ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 433.
- ↑ Celia J. Bergoffen. The Cypriot bronze age pottery. p. 58.
- ↑ Dominique Collon. Ancient Near Eastern Art. p. 109.
- ↑ Marlies Heinz,Marian H. Feldman. Representations of Political Power. p. 23.
- ↑ Billie Jean Collins. The Hittites and Their World. p. 46.
- ↑ Gwendolyn Leick. The Babylonian World. p. 212.
- ↑ Gwendolyn Leick. The Babylonian World. p. 213.
- ↑ Margreet L. Steiner,Ann E. Killebrew. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. p. 409.
- ↑ Beatrice Teissier. Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age. p. 38.
- ↑ Stephanie Dalley. Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. p. 51.
- ↑ Michael Nathanson. Between Myth & Mandate. p. 72.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 41.
- ↑ Timothy Insoll. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. p. 896.
- ↑ Piotr Taracha. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. p. 121.
- ↑ Hugh N. Kennedy. Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria. p. 166.
- ↑ Gülru Necipoğlu,Karen Leal. Muqarnas. p. 114.
- ↑ Ulf Oldenburg. The Conflict Between El and Ba'al in Canaanite Religion. p. 67.
- ↑ Ulf Oldenburg. The Conflict Between El and Ba'al in Canaanite Religion. p. 160.
- ↑ Alberto Ravinell Whitney Green. The Storm-god in the Ancient Near East. p. 181.
- ↑ Alberto Ravinell Whitney Green. The Storm God in the Ancient Near East. p. 170.
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