Water export

Water exports involve exporting freshwater from one country to another. Large increases in human population and economic growth throughout the world during the twentieth century placed a huge stress on the world’s freshwater resources. Combined with climate change, they will place an even greater demand on water resources in this century. Water shortages have become an international concern, and freshwater has been described as “blue gold”^[1] and “the oil of the 21st Century.”^[2]

Water exports from Canada to the US

A satellite image of North America. The Great Lakes are in the east, while the south-west clearly lacks water.

In the south-western US, growing populations and lifestyles that consume large amounts of water have caused most of the aquifers and rivers in the region to be overused. The water in the Oglala Aquifer, which serves much of the west-central US, is being used eight times faster than it is being replenished. Demands for this freshwater will increase as the climate warms.^[3]

In Canada there have been concerns about exporting water to the United States since the 1960s, when states in the south-western US experienced their first water shortages and began to seek water sources to augment their overstretched supplies.^[4] Canada has 7% of the world’s renewable supply of freshwater.^[5] Large-scale removal of water from lakes would negatively affect their ecosystems, increasing pollution concentrations and harming plant and animal communities.^[3]

Freshwater export between Canada and the US currently takes place at a small scale, mostly as bottled water exports. The bottled water industry exports water in containers usually no larger than twenty litres.^[4]

Many states in the US have experienced water shortages in the past few decades, creating a market for freshwater that would be profitable for Canada. Numerous proposals about transferring large amounts of freshwater from the Great Lakes Basin into the US have been made. This would involve inter-basin transport of water across the international boundary between Canada and the US using a man-made reservoir. None of these proposals have as yet been implemented, mainly due to environmental and financial obstacles.^{[citation needed]} However, since 1850 the Americans have been diverting much of the water of the Chicago River, which would naturally flow into Lake Michigan, into the Mississippi basin over Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. In that case, though, the goal was not taking possession of the water that would otherwise end up in the Great Lakes / St. Lawrence system, but directing Chicago's effluent away from Lake Michigan.

Schemes to export water from Canada to the US on a large scale have been proposed in the past. These schemes include the Great Recycling and Northern Development (GRAND) Canal scheme to dam James Bay to create a freshwater reservoir and divert the water from the 20 rivers that flow into it to Georgian Bay. The water would then be flushed through the Great Lakes into pipelines to the south-western US. The North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA) project proposed to divert the Yukon, Liard, and Peace rivers into the Rocky Mountain Trench to create an 800 km long reservoir that would transfer water into the US.^[3]

During the 1990s schemes to export water by ocean-going tankers were proposed to three Canadian provinces.^[4] In 1991, Sun Belt Water Inc. of Santa Barbara, California, in partnership with Snowcap Waters Ltd., of Fanny Bay, British Columbia, was selected by the Goleta Water District, of California, to enter a contract to supply bulk water by marine tanker but the government of British Columbia reversed its water export policy and introduced a prohibition on the issuance of water export licences leading to an arbitration claim against Canada under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement filed by Sun Belt Water Inc. in 1999. The arbitration remains unresolved.

In 1999 Nova Group Ltd. obtained a permit from the Ontario government to export 600 millions litres of water annually from Lake Superior to Asia. Political controversy in Canada and the US caused the government to cancel the permit.^[6]

Water has been classed as a commodity under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) since the 1980s. This has increased tensions in the debate about exporting water. Although none of the NAFTA rules force Canada to begin to export its water in bulk, if Canada voluntarily decides to begin exports it would be very difficult to later halt them.^[4]

The Federal government of Canada passed the International Boundary Waters Treaty Act in 2002. This banned the removal of more than 50 million cubic meters of water from a water basin in the Great Lakes in one day. The Boundary Waters Treaty is limited to waters on the Canadian-US border and does not apply to freshwater in other parts of Canada. This means the about 85 percent of Canada’s water is susceptible to export.^[7] As human populations and industries grow and the climate change takes place, greater pressure will be placed on water-rich countries like Canada to export their water to countries that have a water shortage.^[3]

Since Canada has taken a strong position against water exports, companies are shifting their focus to Alaska.^[6] Alaska was the first jurisdiction in the world to permit the commercial export of bulk water, and has a large potential for water exports.^[1] One scheme proposes transporting water from Alaska to China by tanker. This water would be used to assemble computer wafers by China’s relatively cheap labour force. Computer wafers require extremely pure freshwater. This makes the cost of desalination of saltwater prohibitely expensive, making schemes like this, that would not be profitable for domestic purposes, profitable for industrial purposes.^[8]

Water exports within States in the United States

On June 13, 2013, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously upheld lower court rulings in Tarrant Regional Water District v. Hermann, holding that Oklahoma state water laws validly barred state entities from selling water for out-of-state use, via the Red River Compact among Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas and Louisiana.^[9]

Water exports from Russia to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan

Arid but densely populated southern Kazakhstan and adjacent Central Asian states occupy somewhat similar position with respect to Russia's Siberia as the south-western United States do with respect to Canada. Siberian rivers, as well as rivers of northern European Russia flow "uselessly" into the seas of the Arctic Ocean, while that water could be much more profitably used for irrigated agriculture by Russia's southern neighbors. Not surprisingly, proposals for large-scale transfer of water from the Ob River in Siberia to the Aral Sea basin in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have been seriously considered by the Soviet federal government already in the 1960-80s, when all republics involved were members of the USSR. While welcomed by many in Central Asian republics, the project received severe criticism from many scientists as well as prominent writers and journalists in Russia, such as Valentin Rasputin and Sergey Zalygin, sometimes known collectively as the "Siberian environmental lobby"^[10]

Shelved in 1986 for both economical and environmental reasons,^[11] the idea of international water transfers has been raised again in the 21st century in the ruling circles of the now independent states. Both the Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev and the Uzbek President Islam Karimov expressed interest in such a water transfer scheme. While the Russian federal government so far remains non-committal on the issue, the plan met enthusiastic response from Moscow mayor and Russian presidential hopeful, Yuri Luzhkov.^{[12] [13] [14] [15]}

Gigantic water export projects

There are vast deserts in all continents (western part of South America, Northern and south western Africa, Middle East in Asia, South eastern part of USA, Australia, etc.) and also water surplus regions nearer to these deserts.^[16] It is technically and economically feasible to construct man made fresh water reservoirs / lagoons on the continental shelf of the sea up to 12 meters depth from the coast line to supply fresh water to desert areas from nearby water surplus/high rainfall areas. Excess water from the high rainfall regions will be collected in the man made lagoons at sea level and this fresh water is pumped to irrigate desert lands from the other end of the lengthy man made lagoons. In other words, the proposal is interconnecting rivers with a sea level / sub sea level contour canal (at least five km wide) to facilitate water transfer.

Water can be pumped from the artificial fresh water lagoon throughout the year for meeting agriculture, etc needs. Also these deep sea facing dikes can be used as sea ports for large ships and top surface as coastal road & rail routs. These proposed dikes would be similar to the reclamation of North Sea area called Delta Works in Netherlands. This man made lagoon would be hundreds of kilometres in length and broken in to parts and interconnected by under water tunnels/ ducts (nearly 500 meters long) wherever existing ports and famous beach resorts are located. These lagoons are also interconnected to sea via locks for using the lagoon area for shipping, ship breaking, ship building, etc. purposes. The evaporation and seepage water losses from the man made lagoons would be less than the rainfall on the lagoon area.

It is estimated that the construction cost of sea dikes would be of the order of 10 million US$ per kilometre length. The benefits in terms of agriculture production, shipping, road transport, rail transport, etc are enormous and the entire cost would be paid back within a decade. These massive multinational projects would galvanize the stagnating world economy and also create long lasting productive infrastructure. However the negative aspects of these man made lagoons are to be evaluated in detail and proper remedial steps shall be incorporated to minimize the damage to coastal ecosystem by the presence of fresh water lagoon as barrier to the sea.

The following are the possible projects in each continent:

• Water transfer (refer Indian Rivers Inter-link) from the Sri Lanka and west coast of India to Iran, Pakistan and Arabian Peninsula.
• Water transfer from the west central Africa (Congo River basin, etc) to Northern Africa (Sahara desert) and South West Africa (Namibia and South Africa deserts)
• Water transfer from the south east Africa (Zambezi River basin, etc) to North east Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia. Sudan, Egypt, etc).
• Water transfer from the north western part of South America continent (south of Panama Canal) to desert lands of Chile and Peru.
• Water transfer from the Papua New Guinea island (South east Asia) to Northern Australia.
• Water transfer from the north and south coastal areas of North America continent to south western region of USA and central parts of Mexico.

The above gigantic projects would cover most of the desert areas of the world except the high lands of central Asian deserts. Thus most of the lands which are not available for cultivation and forestry can be turned in to habitat to copious greenery which would help to mitigate the global warming process.

Alternatives to large-scale water exports

In the short run, better allocation of resources and more efficient water conservation technology may keep demand for water in some countries under control. However, a water crisis may occur in the near future that would make bulk water export a more favourable plan.^{[citation needed]}

The canals that would have to be constructed to transfer water require huge investment and operation costs. This would make the cost for consumers of the water expensive. In contrast, the technology needed to desalinate seawater has improved dramatically and has an acceptable cost for urban markets. Whether or not pressures for large-scale water exports continues to increase depends mostly on future advances in desalination technology. If the cost of desalination drops enough, it will be cheaper to generate freshwater from salt water than to import freshwater from another country. The cost of desalination is currently less than US$1 per cubic meter. The World Water Council has suggested that desalination will become the favoured method of procuring drinking and industrial-use waters. However, the need for extremely pure water for particular industrial uses would still require freshwater imports.^[8]

See also

• Sporhase v. Nebraska ex rel. Douglas
• Water resources
• Water trading

References

External links

• Great Lakes Commission: Declaration of Partnerships.
• Council of the Great Lakes Governors.
• Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 1999, Strategy Launched to Prohibit the Bulk Removal of Canadian Water, Including Water for Export.

• Sun Belt Water Inc., Company website