Universal suffrage

Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens (or subjects), though it may also mean extending that right to minors (Demeny voting) and non-citizens. Although suffrage has two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities to vote, the term universal suffrage is associated only with the right to vote and ignores the frequency that an incumbent government consults the electorate. Where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status.

New Zealand became the first nation in the world to recognize universal, male and female adult suffrage in 1893.^[1] Historically, however, universal suffrage usually referred to adult male suffrage. The first system to explicitly claim to use universal [male] suffrage was in France, and this is generally recognized as the first national system to abolish all property requirements to allow men to vote. Republican France first instituted full male suffrage in 1792. France and Switzerland have recognized full male suffrage continuously since 1848 (for resident male citizens). The German Empire implemented full male suffrage from 1871.

In most countries, full universal suffrage followed about 10 to 20 years after full male suffrage. Notable exceptions were France, where women could not vote until 1945, Italy (1946), Belgium (1948) and Switzerland (1971 in federal elections and 1990 in all cantonal elections).

In the first modern democracies, the vote was restricted to those with property and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the male population. In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as restrictions on voters of a given religion. In all modern democracies the number of people who could vote increased progressively with time. The 19th century saw movements advocating "universal [male] suffrage". The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal and Common Suffrage.

Universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all citizens. Some countries, however, do not give the vote to certain categories of people. This includes felony disenfranchisement and disenfranchisement based on resident status.

Expanding suffrage

Voting is an important part of the formal democratic process.

The first movements toward universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement was the extension of the right to vote to women.

Several countries which had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal process, or their existence, interrupted during the First World War.

Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or ethnicity. For example, non-white people could not vote in national elections in apartheid-era South Africa, until the first multi-party elections in 1994. In the pre-Civil Rights Era American South, African Americans often technically had the right to vote, but various obstacles prevented many of them from exercising that right.

Disenfranchisement

All US states, with the exceptions of Maine and Vermont, disenfranchise some felons from voting depending on their current incarceration, parole or probation status; a number US states permanently disenfranchise some felons, even after their release from prison.^[2] Many states within the U.S. previously disenfranchised paupers, persons who either paid no direct taxes or received public assistance.^[3]

There are also differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident citizens: non-resident Italians have representatives at-large in the Italian parliament; U.S. citizens voting abroad vote as residents of the last state where they (or their parents) lived; British people, however, cannot vote for their national parliament unless they have lived in the UK in the last fifteen years.^[4] A few nations also restrict those who are involved in the military or police forces, e.g. Kuwait.^[5]

Many democratic countries, most notably the United Kingdom and France, have had colonies, the inhabitants of which have not, or mostly not, been citizens of the imperial power, but subjects; subjects have generally not been entitled to vote for the imperial legislature. A peculiarly complex case is that of Algeria under the Fourth French Republic: Algeria was legally an integral part of France, but citizenship was restricted (as in the French colonies proper) by culture, not by race or ethnicity. Any Algerian could become a French citizen by choosing to live like one, but very few did as it was considered apostasy from Islam, the dominant religion in Algeria.

Citizens of an EU Member State are allowed to vote in EU parliamentary elections, as well as some local elections. For example, a British person living in Graz, Austria, would be entitled to vote for the European Parliament as a resident of the "electoral district" of Austria, and to vote in Graz municipal elections. He would, however, not be entitled to vote in Austrian (federal) elections, or Styrian (state) elections. Similarly, all locally resident EU citizens in the UK are allowed to vote for representatives of the local council, and those resident in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland may vote for the devolved parliaments or assemblies, but only British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens are allowed to vote for the British House of Commons.

In the West Bank, Palestinians are not Israeli citizens and therefore cannot vote in Israeli elections; different areas of the West Bank are under varying levels of Israeli control. settlers to Area C (and their offspring) retain their citizenship, and can continue to vote.

Criticism of universal suffrage

In recent years, some journalists have expressed their criticism of universal suffrage. Renown Russian journalist Yulia Latynina has come with an idea of ktitocracy: electoral qualification that consists in allowing to vote only to those who pay more in taxes than they consume in social wellfare. Another scheme proposed by her is for the state to buy out and destroy the votes for $30 (sum proposed for Russia). This is meant so that those who value their votes so less should not influence the result, but at the same time that they will not be plainly deprived of the right to vote.^[6]

Notable dates for universal suffrage in the world

States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times.

Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the icon.

 Universal male suffrage starting in 1853, restricted in 1886

Women's suffrage

The first women's suffrage was granted in Corsica in 1755 and lasted until 1769.^[21]

Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was next granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men") and rescinded in 1807.

The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the later half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.

The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand in 1893.^[1] The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893. Māori men had been granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879. The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.^[21]

South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.

In Portugal, in 1911, Carolina Beatriz Ângelo was the first woman to be granted the right to vote. She voted in the First Portuguese Republic elections of 1911.^[22]

In 1930, Turkey granted women's suffrage for city council elections, many years earlier than France, Italy and Switzerland. In 1934 all women in Turkey could vote and could be elected.^[23]

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected. During the discussion to extend their right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

Youth suffrage, children's suffrage and suffrage in school

Main article: Youth suffrage

Democratic schools practice and support universal suffrage in school, which allows a vote to every member of the school, including students and staff. Such schools hold that this feature is essential for students to be ready to move into society at large.^[24][25]

See also

• Suffragette
• Demeny voting
• Voting age
• Equality before the law
• List of suffragists and suffragettes
• List of women's rights activists
• Timeline of women's suffrage

References

External links

• Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832 reforms
• Finnish centennial celebration
• "Have you heard the news?", a pamphlet published by an anonymous English freeman in 1835
• An address to the middle and working classes engaged in trade and manufactures throughout the empire on the necessity of union at the present crisis (1842) by Richard Gardner

Listen to this article (info/dl)

This audio file was created from a revision of the "Universal suffrage" article dated 2010-06-05, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)

More spoken articles