Troy

Troy
The walls of the acropolis belong to Troy VII, which is identified as the site of the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC).
Shown within Turkey
Location	Tevfikiye, Çanakkale Province, Turkey
Region	Troad
Coordinates	39°57′27″N 26°14′20″E / 39.95750°N 26.23889°E / 39.95750; 26.23889Coordinates: 39°57′27″N 26°14′20″E / 39.95750°N 26.23889°E / 39.95750; 26.23889
Type	Settlement
History
Founded	3000 BC
Abandoned	500 AD
Periods	Early Bronze Age to Byzantine Empire
Site notes
Website	Troia Archaeological Site
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name: Archaeological Site of Troy
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii, vi
Designated	1998 (22nd session)
Reference No.	849
Region	Europe and North America

Troy (Ancient Greek: Ἴλιον, Ilion, or Ἴλιος, Ilios; and Τροία, Troia; Latin: Trōia and Īlium;^[1] Hittite: Wilusa or Truwisa;^[2][3] Turkish: Truva) was a city, both factual and legendary, in northwest Anatolia in what is now Turkey, south of the southwest end of the Dardanelles / Hellespont and northwest of Mount Ida. It is best known for being the setting of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Metrical evidence from the Iliad and the Odyssey seems to show that the name Ἴλιον (Ilion) formerly began with a digamma: Ϝίλιον (Wilion). This was later supported by the Hittite form Wilusa.

A new city called Ilium was founded on the site in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. It flourished until the establishment of Constantinople and declined gradually during the Byzantine era.

In 1865, English archaeologist Frank Calvert excavated trial trenches in a field he had bought from a local farmer at Hisarlık, and in 1868, Heinrich Schliemann, wealthy German businessman and archaeologist, also began excavating in the area after a chance meeting with Calvert in Çanakkale.^[4][5] These excavations revealed several cities built in succession. Schliemann was at first skeptical about the identification of Hisarlik with Troy, but was persuaded by Calvert^[6] and took over Calvert's excavations on the eastern half of the Hisarlik site, which was on Calvert's property. Troy VII has been identified with the Hittite Wilusa, the probable origin of the Greek Ἴλιον, and is generally (but not conclusively) identified with Homeric Troy.

Today, the hill at Hisarlik has given its name to a small village near the ruins, supporting the tourist trade visiting the Troia archaeological site.^[7] It lies within the province of Çanakkale, some 30 km south-west of the provincial capital, also called Çanakkale. The nearest village is Tevfikiye. The map here shows the adapted Scamander estuary with Ilium a little way inland across the Homeric plain.

Troia was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998.

Homeric Troy

Ancient Greek historians variously placed the Trojan War in the 12th, 13th, or 14th centuries BC: Eratosthenes to 1184 BC, Herodotus to 1250 BC, Duris of Samos to 1334 BC. Modern archaeologists associate Homeric Troy with archaeological Troy VII.^[8]

In the Iliad, the Achaeans set up their camp near the mouth of the River Scamander (presumably modern Karamenderes),^[9] where they had beached their ships. The city of Troy itself stood on a hill, across the plain of Scamander, where the battles of the Trojan War took place. The site of the ancient city is some 5 km from the coast today, but the ancient mouths of Scamander, some 3,000 years ago, were about that distance inland,^[10] pouring into a large bay that formed a natural harbour that has since been filled with alluvial material. Recent geological findings have permitted the reconstruction of how the original Trojan coastline would have looked, and the results largely confirm the accuracy of the Homeric geography of Troy.^[11]

In November 2001, geologists John C. Kraft from the University of Delaware and John V. Luce from Trinity College, Dublin presented the results^[12][13][14] of investigations, begun in 1977, into the geology of the region. They compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographia, and concluded that there is a regular consistency between the location of Schliemann's Troy and other locations such as the Greek camp, the geological evidence, descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad.^[15][16]

Besides the Iliad, there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the Odyssey, as well as in other ancient Greek literature (like Aeschylus' Oresteia). The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in his Aeneid. The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the historicity of the Trojan War and the identity of Homeric Troy with the site in Anatolia. Alexander the Great, for example, visited the site in 334 BC and made sacrifices at tombs there associated with the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus.

After the 1995 find of a Luwian biconvex seal at Troy VII, there has been a heated discussion over the language that was spoken in Homeric Troy. Frank Starke of the University of Tübingen recently demonstrated that the name of Priam, king of Troy at the time of the Trojan War, is connected to the Luwian compound Priimuua, which means "exceptionally courageous".^[17] "The certainty is growing that Wilusa/Troy belonged to the greater Luwian-speaking community," although it is not entirely clear whether Luwian was primarily the official language or in daily colloquial use.^[18]

Chronology in the search for Homeric Troy

Initially, the layers of Troy VI and VII were overlooked entirely, because Schliemann favoured the burnt city of Troy II. It was not until the need to close Calvert's Thousand Year Gap arose—from Dörpfeld's discovery of the walls of Troy VI—that archaeology turned away from Schliemann's Troy and began working towards finding Homeric Troy once more.^[19]

Calvert's Thousand Year Gap

Part of the city's archaeological chronology occurred during what is called "Calvert's Thousand Year Gap" (1800-800 BC), a period not accounted for by Schliemann's archaeology and thus constituting a hole in the Trojan timeline. In Homer's description of the city, a section of one side of the wall is said to be weaker than the rest.^[20] During his excavation of more than three hundred yards of the wall, Dörpfeld came across a section very closely resembling the Homeric description of the weaker section.^[21] Dörpfeld was convinced he had found the walls of Homer's city, and now he would excavate the city itself. Within the walls of this stratum (Troy VI), much Mycenaean pottery dating from LH III A and III B was uncovered, suggesting a relation between the Trojans and Mycenaeans. The great tower along the walls seemed likely to be the "Great Tower of Ilios".^[22]

The evidence seemed to indicate that Dörpfeld had stumbled upon Ilios, the city of Homer's epics. Schliemann himself had conceded that Troy VI was more likely to be the Homeric city, but he never published anything stating so.^[23] The only counter-argument, confirmed initially by Dörpfeld (who was as passionate as Schliemann about finding Troy), was that the city appeared to have been destroyed by an earthquake, not by men.^[24] There was little doubt that this was the Troy that the Mycenaeans would have known of.^[25]

Archaeological Troy

The layers of ruins in the citadel at Hisarlık are numbered Troy I – Troy IX, with various subdivisions:

• Troy I 3000–2600 BC (Western Anatolian EB 1)
• Troy II 2600–2250 BC (Western Anatolian EB 2)
• Troy III 2250–2100 BC (Western Anatolian EB 3 [early])
• Troy IV 2100–1950 BC (Western Anatolian EB 3 [middle])
• Troy V: 20th–18th centuries BC (Western Anatolian EB 3 [late])
• Troy VI: 17th–15th centuries BC
• Troy VIh: late Bronze Age, 14th century BC
• Troy VIIa: c. 1300–1190 BC, most likely setting for Homer's story^[26]
• Troy VIIb₁: 12th century BC
• Troy VIIb₂: 11th century BC
• Troy VIIb₃: until c. 950 BC
• Troy VIII: c. 700–85 BC
• Troy IX: 85 BC–c. AD 500

The archaeological site of Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998.^[27]

Troy I–V

The first city on the site was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. During the Bronze Age, the site seems to have been a flourishing mercantile city, since its location allowed for complete control of the Dardanelles, through which every merchant ship from the Aegean Sea heading for the Black Sea had to pass. Around 1900 BC a mass migration was set off by the Hittites to the east. Cities to the east of Troy were destroyed, and although Troy was not burned, the next period shows a change of culture indicating a new people had taken over Troy.^[28]

Schliemann's Troy II

When Schliemann came across Troy II, in 1871, he believed he had found Homer's city. Schliemann and his team unearthed a large feature he dubbed the Scaean Gate, a western gate unlike the three previously found leading to the Pergamos.^[29] This gate, as he describes, was the gate that Homer had featured. As Schliemann states in his publication Troja: "I have proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city, destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe, which had on the hill of Hisarlık only its Acropolis with its temples and a few other large edifices, southerly, and westerly direction on the site of the later Ilium; and that, consequently, this city answers perfectly to the Homeric description of the sacred site of Ilios."^[30]

Troy VI

Troy VI was destroyed around 1250 BC, probably by an earthquake. Only a single arrowhead was found in this layer, and no remains of bodies. However the town quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a layout that was more orderly.

Troy VII

Troy VII, which has been dated to the mid-to-late-13th century BC, is the most often cited candidate for the Troy of Homer. It appears to have been destroyed by war.^[31] The evidence of fire and slaughter around 1184 BC, which brought Troy VIIa to a close, led to this phase being identified with the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War. This was immortalized in the Iliad written by Homer.^[32]

Troy VIII

In 480 the Persian king Xerxes sacrificed 1,000 cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while marching through the Hellespontine region towards Greece.^[33] Following the Persian defeat in 480/79 Ilion and its territory became part of the continental possessions of Mytilene and remained under Mytilenaean control until the unsuccessful Mytilenean revolt in 428/7. Athens liberated the so-called Actaean cities including Ilion and enrolled these communities in the Delian League. Athenian influence in the Hellespont waned following the oligarchic coup of 411, and in that year the Spartan general Mindaros emulated Xerxes by likewise sacrificing to Athena Ilias.^[1] From c. 410-399 Ilion was within the sphere of influence of the local dynasts at Lampsacus (Zenis, his wife Mania, and the usurper Meidias) who administered the region on behalf of the Persian satrap Pharnabazus.^[1]

In 399 the Spartan general Dercylidas expelled the Greek garrison at Ilion who were controlling the city on behalf of the Lampsacene dyansts during a campaign which rolled back Persian influence throughout the Troad. Ilion remained outside the control of the Persian satrapal administration at Daskyleion until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/6. In this period of renewed Persian control c. 387-367, a statue of Ariobarzanes, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, was erected in front of the temple of Athena Ilias.^[34] In 360/59 the city was briefly controlled by Charidemus of Oreus, a Euboean mercenary leader who occasionally worked for the Athenians.^[35] In 359 he was expelled by the Athenian Menelaos son of Arrabaios, whom the Ilians honoured with a grant of proxeny - this is recorded in the earliest civic decree to survive from Ilion.^[36] In May 334 Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont and came to the city, where he visited the temple of Athena Ilias, made sacrifices at the tombs of the Homeric heroes, and made the city free and exempt from taxes.^[37] According to the so-called 'Last Plans' of Alexander which became known after his death in June 323, he had planned to rebuild the temple of Athena Ilias on a scale that would have surpassed every other temple in the known world.^[38]

Antigonus Monophthalmus took control of the Troad in 311 and created the new city of Antigoneia Troas which was a synoikism of the cities of Skepsis, Kebren, Neandreia, Hamaxitos, Larisa, and Kolonai. In c. 311-306 the koinon of Athena Ilias was founded from the remaining cities in the Troad and along the Asian coast of the Dardanelles and soon after succeeded in securing a guarantee from Antigonus that he would respect their autonomy and freedom (unlike he had with the cities which were synoikized to create Antigoneia).^[39] The koinon continued to function until at least the 1st century AD and primarily consisted of cities from the Troad, although for a time in the second half of the 3rd century it also included Myrlea and Chalcedon from the eastern Propontis.^[40] The governing body of the koinon was the synedrion on which each city was represented by two delegates. The day-to-day running of the synedrion, especially in relation to its finances, was left to a college of five agonothetai, on which no city ever had more than one representative. This system of equal (rather than proportional) representation ensured that no one city could politically dominate the koinon.^[41] The primary purpose of the koinon was to organize the annual Panathenaia festival which was held at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias. The festival brought huge numbers of pilgrims to Ilion for the duration of the festival as well as creating an enormous market (the panegyris) which attracted traders from across the region.^[42] In addition, the koinon financed new building projects at Ilion, for example a new theatre c. 306 and the expansion of the sanctuary and temple of Athena Ilias in the 3rd century, in order to make the city a suitable venue for such a large festival.^[43]

In the period 302-281 Ilion and the Troad were part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who during this time helped Ilion synoikize several nearby communities, thus expanding the city's population and territory.^[44] Lysimachus was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium in February 281 by Seleucus I Nikator, thus handing the Seleucid kingdom control of Asia Minor, and in August or September of 281 when Seleucus passed through the Troad on his way to Lysimachia in the nearby Thracian Chersonese Ilion passed a decree in honour of him, indicating the city's new loyalties.^[45] In September Seleucus was assassinated at Lysimachia by Ptolemy Keraunos, making his successor, Antiochus I Soter, the new king. In 280 or soon after Ilion passed a long decree lavishly honouring Antiochus in order to cement their relationship with him.^[46] During this period Ilion still lacked proper city walls except for the crumbling Troy VI fortifications around the citadel, and in 278 during the Gallic invasion the city was easily sacked.^[47] Ilion enjoyed a close relationship with Antiochus for the rest of his reign: for example, in 274 Antiochus granted land to his friend Aristodikides of Assos which for tax purposes was to be attached to the territory of Ilion, and c. 275-269 Ilion passed a decree in honour of Metrodoros of Amphipolis who had successfully treated the king for a wound he received in battle.^[48]

Troy IX

The city was destroyed by Sulla's rival, the Roman general Fimbria, in 85 BC following an eleven day siege.^[49] Later that year when Sulla had defeated Fimbria he bestowed benefactions on Ilion for its loyalty which helped with the city's rebuilding. Ilion reciprocated this act of generosity by instituting a new civic calendar which took 85 BC as its first year.^[50] However, the city remained in financial distress for several decades, despite its favoured status with Rome. In the 80s BC Roman publicani illegally levied taxes on the sacred estates of Athena Ilias and the city was required to call on L. Julius Caesar for restitution, while in 80 BC the city suffered an attack by pirates.^[51] In 77 BC the costs of running the annual festival of the koinon of Athena Ilias became too pressing for both Ilion and the other members of the koinon and L. Julius Caesar was once again required to arbitrate, this time reforming the festival so that it would be less of a financial burden.^[52] In 74 BC the Ilians once again demonstrated their loyalty to Rome by siding with the Roman general Lucullus against Mithridates VI.^[53] Following the final defeat of Mithridates in 63/2, Pompey rewarded the city's loyalty by becoming the benefactor of Ilion and patron of Athena Ilias.^[54] In 48 BC Julius Caesar likewise bestowed benefactions on the city, recalling the city's loyalty during the Mithridatic Wars, the city's connection with his cousin L. Julius Caesar, and the family's claim that they were ultimately descended from Venus through the Trojan prince Aeneas and therefore shared kinship with the Ilians.^[55]

In 20 BC the Emperor Augustus visited Ilion and stayed in the house of a leading citizen, Melanippides son of Euthydikos.^[56] As a result of his visit he also financed the restoration and rebuilding of the sanctuary of Athena Ilias, the bouleuterion, and the theatre. Soon after work on the theatre was completed in 12/11 BC, Melanippides dedicated a statue of Augustus in the theatre to record this benefaction.^[57]

Excavation campaigns

With the rise of critical history, Troy and the Trojan War were, for a long time, consigned to the realms of legend. However, the true location of ancient Troy had from classical times remained the subject of interest and speculation, so when, in 1822, the Scottish journalist Charles Maclaren reviewed the available material, he was able to identify with confidence the position of the acropolis of Augustus's New Ilium in north-western Anatolia.^[58]

In 1866, Frank Calvert, the brother of the United States' consular agent in the region, made extensive surveys and published in scholarly journals his identification of the hill of New Ilium (which was on farmland owned by his family) as the site of ancient Troy. The hill, near the city of Çanakkale, was known to the Turks as Hisarlık.^[59]

Schliemann

In 1868, Heinrich Schliemann visited Calvert and secured permission to excavate Hisarlık. In 1871–73 and 1878–79, he excavated the hill and discovered the ruins of a series of ancient cities dating from the Bronze Age to the Roman period. Schliemann declared one of these cities — at first Troy I, later Troy II — to be the city of Troy, and this identification was widely accepted at that time. Schliemann's finds at Hisarlık have become known as Priam's Treasure. They were acquired from him by the Berlin museums, but significant doubts about their authenticity persist.

Although it is widely believed that Heinrich Schliemann was responsible for starting archaeology on his own with the discovery of Troy, this is inaccurate. Schliemann became interested in digging at the mound of Hisarlık at the persuasion of Frank Calvert. The British diplomat, considered a pioneer for the contributions he made to the archaeology of Troy, spent more than 60 years in the Troad (modern day Biga peninsula, Turkey) conducting field work.^[60] As a principal authority on field archaeology in the region, Calvert's findings supplied evidence that Homeric Troy might exist in the hill, playing a major role in directing Heinrich Schliemann to dig at the Hisarlık.^[61]

Dörpfeld and Blegen

After Schliemann, the site was further excavated under the direction of Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1893–94) and later Carl Blegen (1932–38). ^[62][63] These excavations have shown that there were at least nine cities built, one on top of each other, at this site. In his research, Blegen came to a conclusion that Troy's nine levels could be further divided into forty-six sublevels .^[64]

Korfmann

In 1988, excavations were resumed by a team of the University of Tübingen and the University of Cincinnati under the direction of Professor Manfred Korfmann, with Professor Brian Rose overseeing Post-Bronze Age (Greek, Roman, Byzantine) excavation along the coast of the Aegean Sea at the Bay of Troy. Possible evidence of a battle was found in the form of bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged human remains buried in layers dated to the early 12th century BC. The question of Troy's status in the Bronze-Age world has been the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann and the Tübingen historian Frank Kolb in 2001–2002.

In August 1993, following a magnetic imaging survey of the fields below the fort, a deep ditch was located and excavated among the ruins of a later Greek and Roman city. Remains found in the ditch were dated to the late Bronze Age, the alleged time of Homeric Troy. It is claimed by Korfmann that the ditch may have once marked the outer defences of a much larger city than had previously been suspected. The latter city has been dated by his team to about 1250 BC, and it has been also suggested — based on recent archeological evidence uncovered by Professor Manfred Korfmann's team — that this was indeed the Homeric city of Troy.

Pernicka

In summer 2006, the excavations continued under the direction of Korfmann's colleague Ernst Pernicka, with a new digging permit.^[65]

Aylward and the International Team

The summer of 2013 marked the first of yearly digs by an international team made up of cross-disciplinary experts. The team is led by William Aylward, an archaeologist at the University of Wisconsin.^[66]

Hittite and Egyptian evidence

In the 1920s, the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer claimed that the placenames Wilusa and Taruisa found in Hittite texts should be identified with Ilium and Troia, respectively.^[67] He further noted that the name of Alaksandu, a king of Wilusa mentioned in a Hittite treaty, is quite similar to Homer's Paris, whose birthname was Alexandros. Subsequent to this, the Tawagalawa letter (CTH 181) was found to document an unnamed Hittite king's correspondence to the king of the Ahhiyawa, referring to an earlier "Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of the Ahhiyawa. The Hittite king was long held to be Mursili II (c. 1321—1296), but, since the 1980s, his son Hattusili III (1265—1240) is commonly preferred, although his other son Muwatalli (c. 1296—1272) remains a possibility.

Inscriptions of the New Kingdom of Egypt also record a nation T-R-S as one of the Sea Peoples who attacked Egypt during the XIX and XX Dynasties. An inscription at Deir el-Medina records a victory of Ramesses III over the Sea Peoples, including one named "Tursha" (Egyptian: [twrš3]). It is probably the same as the earlier "Teresh" (Egyptian: [trš.w]) on the stele commemorating Merneptah's victory in a Libyan campaign around 1220 BC.

These identifications were rejected by many scholars as being improbable or at least unprovable. However, Trevor Bryce championed them in his 1998 book The Kingdom of the Hittites, citing a piece of the Manapa-Tarhunda letter referring to the kingdom of Wilusa as beyond the land of the Seha River (the classical Caicus and modern Bakırçay) and near the land of "Lazpa" (Lesbos). Recent evidence also adds weight to the theory that Wilusa is identical to archaeological Troy. Hittite texts mention a water tunnel at Wilusa, and a water tunnel excavated by Korfmann, previously thought to be Roman, has been dated to around 2600 BC. The identifications of Wilusa with Troy and of the Ahhiyawa with Homer's Achaeans remain somewhat controversial but gained enough popularity during the 1990s to be considered majority opinion.

In later legend

Such was the fame of the Epic Cycle in Roman and Medieval times that it was built upon to provide a starting point for various founding myths of national origins. The most influential, Virgil's Aeneid, traces the journeys of the Trojan prince Aeneas, supposed ancestor of the founders of Rome and the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In a later era, the heroes of Troy, both those noted in Homer and those invented for the purpose, often continued to appear in the origin stories of the nations of Early Medieval Europe.^[68][69] The Roman de Troie was common cultural ground for European dynasties,^[70] as a Trojan pedigree was both gloriously ancient and established an equality with the ruling class of Rome. A Trojan pedigree could justify the occupation of parts of Rome's former territories.^[68]

On that basis, the Franks filled the lacunae of their legendary origins with Trojan and pseudo-Trojan names: in Fredegar's 7th-century chronicle of Frankish history, Priam appears as the first king of the Franks.^[71] The Trojan origin of France was such an established article of faith that in 1714, the learned Nicolas Fréret was Bastilled for showing through historical criticism that the Franks had been Germanic, a sore point counter to Valois and Bourbon propaganda.^[72]

In similar manner, Geoffrey of Monmouth reworked earlier material such as the Historia Brittonum to trace the legendary kings of the Britons from a supposed descendant of Aeneas called Brutus.

Likewise, Snorri Sturluson, in the prologue to his Icelandic Prose Edda, traced the genealogy of the ancestral figures in Norse mythology to characters appearing at Troy in Homer's epic, notably making Thor to be the son of Memnon. Sturluson referred to these figures as having made a journey across Europe towards Scandinavia, setting up kingdoms as they went.

Alternative views on Troy

A small minority of contemporary writers argue that Homeric Troy was not in Anatolia, but located elsewhere: England,^[73] Croatia,^[74] and Scandinavia^[75] have been proposed. These theories have little historical basis and have not been accepted by mainstream scholars. ^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Ancient settlements in Turkey
• Cities of the ancient Near East
• Dardanians (Trojan)
• The Golden Bough (mythology)
• Historicity of the Iliad
• Troad
• Trojan language
• Trojan War

Notes

References and further reading

• Allen, Susan (July 1995). "'Finding the Walls of Troy': Frank Calvert, Excavator". American Journal of Archaeology 99 (3): 379–407. Retrieved 30 January 2013. 
• Carter, Jane Burr; Morris, Sarah P., eds. (1995). The Ages of Homer. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71208-1. 
• Easton, D.F.; Hawkins, J.D.; Sherratt, A.G.; Sherratt, E.S. (2002). "Troy in Recent Perspective". Anatolian Studies (52): 75–109. 
• Latacz, Joachim (2004). Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926308-6 
• Shepard, Alan; Powell, Stephen D., eds. (2004). Fantasies of Troy: Classical Tales and the Social Imaginary in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies. 
• Schliemann, Henry (1881). Ilios. The city and country of the Trojans: the results of researches and discoveries on the site of Troy and through the Troad in the years 1871-72-73-78-79. New York: Harper & Brothers. 
• Wood, Michael (1985). 'In Search of the Trojan War'. London; New York: British Broadcasting Corporation; New American Library. ISBN 0-452-25960-6 (pbk.); 978-0-563-21161-8 Check |isbn= value (help). 

External links

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• Official website
• General
  • Troia Projekt and CERHAS (2013). "Welcome to Troy". Troy. University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 8 August 2013. 
• Archaeology
  • Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte und Archäologie des Mittelalters, Universität Tübingen, DEU, and Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati, USA (2010). "TROIA AND THE TROAD - ARCHAEOLOGY OF A REGION: The new excavations at Troy". Project Troia. Institut für Ur- u. Frühgeschichte. Retrieved 8 August 2013. 
    • Troia Project (2004). "Reconstructions". Troia VR. University of Tübingen. Retrieved 8 August 2013. 
    • Heath, Sebastian; Tekkök, Billur, eds. (2007-2009). "Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion (Troia)". Classics Department, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 10 August 2013.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
    • Heath, Sebastian; Mannsperger, Dietrich; Rose, C. Brian; Wallrodt, John (2013). "Coins from Ilion (Troia)". Classics Department, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved 10 August 2013. 
  • Rutter, Jeremy B. (2013). "Welcome". Aegean Prehistoric Archaeology. Dartmouth College. Retrieved 10 August 2013. 
    • "Lesson 23: Troy VI". 
    • "Lesson 27: Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War". 

• Geography
  • Thomas, Neil (2003). "Geology corresponds with Homer’s description of ancient Troy". UDaily Archive. University of Delaware. Retrieved 10 August 2013. 

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v t e Timeline of the Ancient Near East

v t e Epic Cycle Cypria Iliad Aethiopis Little Iliad Iliupersis Nostoi Odyssey Telegony

v t e Ancient Greece Outline Timeline Periods Astronomy Mathematics Medicine Technology Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Alexandria Antioch Crete Cyprus Cappadocia Doris Hellespont Ephesus Epirus Ionian Sea Ionia Macedonia Magna Graecia Miletus Pergamon Peloponnesus Pontus Ancient Greek colonies City states Argos Athens Byzantium Chalkis Corinth Megalopolis Rhodes Syracuse Sparta Thebes Politics Athenian democracy Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphē paranómōn Heliaia Ostracism Boeotarch Boule Koinon Proxeny Spartan Constitution Apella Ephor Gerousia Harmost Strategos Synedrion Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Lydia Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Life Agriculture Calendar Clothing Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Homosexuality Law Marriage Funeral and burial practices Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wine Military Wars Athenian military Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx formation Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Epicurus Empedocles Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Gorgias Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Thucydides Theognis Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alexander the Great Alcibiades Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Playwrights Poets Philosophers Tyrants Cultures Ancient Greek tribes Greeks Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Arts Architecture Coinage Literature Music Pottery Sculpture Theatre Religion Funeral and burial practices Greek mythology Greek temple Greek underworld Mythological figures Twelve Olympians Sacred places Eleusis Delphi Delos Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Structures Temple of Artemis Temple of Athena Nike Athenian Treasury Erechtheion Lion Gate Long Walls Parthenon Philippeion Samothrace temple complex Temple of Aphaea Temple of Hephaestus Temple of Hera, Olympia Temple of Zeus, Olympia Theatre of Dionysus Tunnel of Eupalinos Language Proto-Greek Mycenaean Homeric Dialects Aeolic Arcadocypriot Attic Doric Ionic Locrian Macedonian Pamphylian Koine Writing Linear A Linear B Cypriot syllabary Greek alphabet Greek numerals Attic numerals Lists Cities Cities in Epirus Greek temples Place names Sroae Theatres Category Portal WikiProject

v t e UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Turkey Aegean Hierapolis / Pamukkale Xanthos / Letoon1 Black Sea Hittite Capital of Hattusa Safranbolu Central Anatolia Göreme and Rock Sites of Cappadocia Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği Marmara Archaeological Site of Troy Historic Areas of Istanbul Selimiye Mosque and its Social Complex Mediterranean Xanthos / Letoon1 Southeastern Anatolia Mount Nemrut in Commagene 1 Shared with other regions

v t e National parks of Turkey Aegean Region Akdağ Başkomutan Dilek Peninsula- Büyük Menderes Delta Mount Honaz Marmaris Mount Spil Black Sea Region Alacahöyük Altındere Hatila Valley Kaçkar Mountains Karagöl-Sahara Küre Mountains Mount Ilgaz Yedigöller Central Anatolia Region Aladağlar Göreme Lake Beyşehir Soğuksu Yozgat Pine Grove Eastern Anatolia Region Munzur Valley Marmara Region Gallipoli Kuş Cenneti Mount Ida Troy Uludağ Mediterranean Region Altınbeşik Cave Beydağları Coastal Güllük Mountain (Termessos) Karatepe-Aslantaş Kızıldağ Köprülü Canyon Lake Kovada Saklıkent Canyon Southeastern Anatolia Region Mount Nemrut

v t e Ancient Kingdoms of Anatolia Before Achaemenid conquest (546 BC) Hatti Hittites Diauehi Colchis Wilusa/Troy Kaska Hayasa-Azzi Arzawa Kizzuwatna Millawanda/Milatos Lukka Assuwa league Urartu Neo-Hittites Phrygia Lydia After Partition of Babylon (323 BC) Cappadocia Bithynia Antigonids Pergamon Galatia Pontus Commagene

v t e Ancient settlements in Turkey Aegean Aegae Aizanoi Alabanda Alinda Allianoi Amorium Amyzon Antioch on the Maeander Apamea in Phrygia Aphrodisias Apollonia in Mysia Atarneus Bargylia Beycesultan Caloe Caryanda Celaenae Ceramus Colophon Claros Cyme Didyma Docimium Ephesus Erythrae Euromus Gambrion Gryneion Halicarnassus Hierapolis Iasos Karmylissos Kaunos Klazomenai Knidos Labraunda Laodicea on the Lycus Latmus Lebedus Limantepe Magnesia ad Sipylus Magnesia on the Maeander Metropolis Miletus Myndus Myriandrus Myrina Myus Notion Nysa Oenoanda Pepuza Pergamon Perperene Phocaea Pinara Pitane Priene Sardis Smyrna Stratonicea in Lydia Stratonicea in Caria Temnos Teos Tymion Black Sea Alaca Höyük Comana in the Pontus Euchaita Hattusa Heraclea Pontica Hüseyindede Tepe Ibora Laodicea Pontica Nerik Nicopolis Pompeiopolis Salatiwara Samuha Sapinuwa Tripolis Yazılıkaya Zaliches Central Anatolia Alişar Hüyük Binbirkilise Çatalhöyük Derbe Dorylaeum Gordium Heraclea Cybistra Irenopolis Kaman-Kalehöyük Kerkenes Kültepe (Kanesh) Laodicea Combusta Mokissos Nyssa Pessinus Purushanda Tavium Tyana Eastern Anatolia Altıntepe Ani Cafer Höyük Melid Sugunia Tushpa Marmara Achilleion Aegospotami Ainos Alexandria Troas Apamea Myrlea Apollonia on the Rhyndax Apros Assos Byzantium Cardia Cebrene Chalcedon Charax Cius Cyzicus Drusipara Faustinopolis Germanicopolis Lamponeia Lampsacus Lysimachia Marpessos Neandreia Nicomedia Orestias Perinthos Sestos Sigeion Skepsis Troy (Hisarlik) Mediterranean Alalakh Anazarbus Antigonia Antioch on the Orontes Antioch in Pisidia Antiochia Lamotis Antioch on the Cragus Antioch on the Pyramis Aphrodisias of Cilicia Ariassos Arsinoe Arycanda Aspendos Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing Comana in Cappadocia Corycus (Kızkalesi) Cremna Cyrrhus Domuztepe Elaiussa Sebaste Epiphania Gözlükule Hacilar Irenopolis Issus Kandyba Karatepe Kibyra Mallus Mamure Castle Mezgitkale Mopsuestia Myra Olba Olympos Öküzlü Patara Perga Phaselis Rhodiapolis Rhosus Sagalassos Seleucia in Pamphylia Seleucia Pieria Seleucia Sidera Selge Side Sillyon Soli Sozopolis Tell Tayinat Termessos Tlos Trebenna Xanthos Yanıkhan Yumuktepe Southeastern Anatolia Antioch in the Taurus Antioch in Mesopotamia Apamea on the Euphrates Carchemish Çayönü Dara Edessa Göbekli Tepe Harran Kussara Nevalı Çori Sakçagözü Sam'al Samosata Sareisa Seleucia at the Zeugma Sultantepe Tille Tushhan Zeugma