Shapur II

Shapur II 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩
"King of kings of Iran and Aniran"[1]
Reign	309–379
Born	309[2]
Birthplace	Possibly Firuzabad
Died	379
Place of death	Bishapur
Predecessor	Adhur Narseh
Successor	Ardashir II
Consort	Sithil-Horak
Issue	Zurvandokht Bahram IV Shapur III
Royal House	House of Sasan
Father	Hormizd II
Religious beliefs	Zoroastrianism

Shapur II (Middle Persian: 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩 Šāhpuhr), also known as Shapur II the Great (Persian: شاپور دوم بزرگ‎), was the tenth king of the Sasanian Empire and the longest reigning monarch of the Sassanid dynasty, he reigned from 309 to 379 and was a son of Hormizd II.^[3] During his long reign, the Sasanian Empire saw its first golden era since the reign of Shapur I (241–272). His name is sometimes given in English as "Shahpour" or "Sapor".^[4]

When he was still in his mother's womb the Sasanian crown was placed on her womb making Shapur II the king of the Sasanian Empire. During his childhood the same priests and officials that were in charge during his father’s reign continued to run Shapur’s empire, however, when Shapur reached the age of 16, he took control himself of the empire and pacifed the Arabs who had been raiding the Sasanian borders as far as Pars. After his victory against the Arabs he became known as Dhū al-aktāf, meaning “he who pierces shoulders”.^[5] He spent rest of his reign fighting the Roman Empire and nomadic tribes, expanding the Sasanian borders over Armenia in the west and as far as India in the east.

Childhood and youth

When King Hormizd II (303–309) died, Persian nobles killed his eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (Hormizd, who afterwards escaped to the Roman Empire). The throne was reserved for the unborn child of one of the wives of Hormizd II. It is said that Shapur II may have been the only king in history to be crowned in utero: the crown was placed upon his mother's belly. This child, named Shapur, was therefore born king; the government was conducted by his mother and the magnates.

During the early years of the reign of Shapur, Arabs crossed the Persian Gulf from Bahrain to "Ardashir-Khora" of Pars and raided the interior. In retaliation, Shapur led an expedition through Bahrain, defeated the combined forces of the Arab tribes of "Taghlib", "Bakr bin Wael", and "Abd Al-Qays" and advanced temporarily into Al-Yamama in central Najd. He resettled these tribes in Kerman and Hormizd-Ardashir. Arabs named him, as "Dhul-aktāf" or "Zol 'Aktāf" that means "The owner of the shoulders" after this battle.

The Bundahishn, an Zoroastrian encyclopedic text mentions that:

Shapur, to protect his empire from Arab attacks, had a wall built close to the city of Al-Hirah which was called 'War i tāzigān' (wall of the Arabs).^[7]

Campaigns

First Roman war and wars in the east

In 337, just before the death of Constantine I (324–337), Shapur, probably provoked by religious differences, broke the peace concluded in 297 between Narseh (293–302) and Emperor Diocletian (284–305), which had been observed for forty years. This was the beginning of two long drawn-out wars (337–350 and 358-363) which were inadequately recorded. After crushing a rebellion in the south, Shapur invaded Roman Mesopotamia and recaptured Armenia. Apparently 9 major battles were fought. The most renowned was the inconclusive Battle of Singara (Sinjar, in Iraq) in which the Roman emperor Constantius II was at first successful, capturing the Persian camp, only to be driven out by a surprise night attack after Shapur had rallied his troops (344-or 348?). Gibbon asserts that Shapur invariably defeated Constantius, but there is reason to believe that the honours were fairly evenly shared between the two capable commanders. (Since Singara was on the Persian side of the Mesopotamian frontier, this alone may suggest that the Romans had not seriously lost ground in the war up to that time.) The most notable feature of this war was the consistently successful defence of the Roman fortress of Nisibis in Mesopotamia. Shapur besieged the fortress three times (337, 344? and 349) and was repulsed each time by Roman general Lucilianus. The main reason that Shapur could not capture Nisibis was because of its defensive system of fortresses and limes.^[8]

Picture of Amida, which was conquered by Shapur II in 359.

Although often victorious in battles, Shapur had made scarcely any progress. At the same time he was attacked in the east by the Kidarites,^[9] who were encroaching onto the Sasanian Empire and also menacing the Gupta empire in India, therefor he had to break off the war with the Romans and arrange a hasty truce in order to pay attention to the east in 350. Shapur II, who had just returned from the Syrian front, was able to contain his eastern foes by making an alliance with their king, Grumbates. Grumbates agreed to enlist his light cavalrymen into the Persian army and accompany Shapur in renewed war against the Romans.

Shapur during his eastern wars defeated many of his enemies and also re-established Sasanian domination over the Kushans. Under his reign, Sindh, Sistan, and Turan formed the eastern edge of the Sasanian Empire, as attested by two Middle Persian inscriptions.^[10]

Second Roman war

In 358, Shapur was ready for his second series of wars against Rome, which met with much more success. Before he was going to wage war against the Roman Empire, he sent a letter to Constantius II, which said:

In 359, Shapur invaded southern Armenia, but was held up by the valiant Roman defence of the fortress of Amida (Diyarbekir, in Turkey) which finally surrendered in 359 after a seventy-three day siege in which the Persian army suffered great losses. After the capture of Amida the city was pillaged and the population was deported to Khuzestan.^[12] The delay at Amida forced him to halt operations for the winter.

Early the following spring Shapur continued his operations against the Roman fortresses, capturing Singara and Bezabde. Constantius arrived from the west at this time, and unsuccessfully tried to recapture Bezabde. In 363 the Emperor Julian (361–363), at the head of a strong army, advanced to the Sasanian capital at Ctesiphon and defeated a smaller Sasanid army at the Battle of Ctesiphon; however, he could not capture the capital because of disorder and pillaging among the Roman forces. Therefore he retreated back to Roman territory but was heavily wounded by a Sasanian spearman during his retreat and died in his tent.^[13] His successor Jovian (363–364) made an ignominious peace, by which Northern and Eastern Mesopotamia, Georgia and Armenia including fifteen fortresses as well as Nisibis was ceded to Persia.^[14] The great success is represented in the rock-sculptures near the town Bishapur in Pars; under the hooves of the king's horse lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a supplicant Roman, the Emperor Jovian, asks for peace.

Shapur then invaded Armenia, where he took King Arsaces II (Arshak II), the faithful ally of the Romans, prisoner by treachery and sent him to the Castle of Oblivion in Khuzestan, where he commmited suicide.^[15] He then attempted to introduce Zoroastrian orthodoxy into Armenia. However, the Armenian nobles resisted him successfully, secretly supported by the Romans, who sent King Papas (Pap), the son of Arsaces II, into Armenia. The war with Rome threatened to break out again, but Valens sacrificed Pap, arranging for his assassination in Tarsus, where he had taken refuge (374). Shapur had conducted great hosts of captives from the Roman territory into his dominions, most of whom were settled in Susiana. Here he rebuilt Susa, after having killed the city's rebellious inhabitants.

By his death in 379 the Sasanian Empire was stronger than ever before, considerably larger than when he came to the throne, the eastern and western enemies were pacified and Persia had gained control over Armenia. He was succeeded by his brother Ardashir II.

Religious policies

In 337, there was a rise in the persecution of Christians, partly due to the Christianization of the Roman Empire and the identification of Christians as collaborators with the enemy. The campaign of Shapur into Syria against the Romans had consequences for the Christianization of the Sassanid Empire, since some Christians were deported there. The problem with Christian loyalty toward the king of kings is also clear in that Shapur had asked a double tax from the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans. According to the Acts of Simeon, once the Christian leader had refused to abide by this request, Shapur said: “Simeon wants to make his followers and his people rebel against my kingdom and convert them into servants Caesar, their coreligionist”^[16]

Legacy

Under Shapur II's reign the collection of the Avesta was completed, heresy and apostasy punished, and the Christians persecuted (see Abdecalas, Acepsimas of Hnaita). This was a reaction against the Christianization of the Roman Empire by Constantine I. He also created several cities and paid special attention to Khuzestan, where Roman prisoners of war were settled in the royal city called Erānšahr-šābuhr. He is also credited with the building of Nishapur. When Nisibis was taken by the Iranians in 363 as war reparation, Shapur populated the city with people from the cities of Estakhr and Isfahan. Other cities associated with him are Peroz-šāpur, also known as Perisapora (Present day Anbar in Iraq). He also created some fire-temples in Isfahan and in Sindh.^[17] The Academy of Gondishapur also greatly expanded during his reign.^[18]

A historian is known to have described Shapur during his wars:

Sasanian provinces during his reign

The provinces during the reign of Shapur II included: Asuristan, Susiana, Armenia, Caucasian Iberia, Atropatene, Media, Persis, Parthia, Carmania, Sakastan, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactria, Sogdia, Khwarazmia, the Sacae, and Scythia at the foot of Imaus (Himalayas), and beyond the same mountain, Serica, Aria, the Paropanisadae, Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Turan.^[20]

See also

• Raba

References

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press