Sensory processing disorder

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sensory processing disorder (SPD) (formerly known as "sensory integration dysfunction") is a condition that exists when sensory signals don't integrate to provide appropriate responses, the various types of sensory information are processed by multisensory integration.[1] Different people experience a wide range of difficulties when processing input coming from a variety of senses. For example, some people find wool fabrics itchy and hard to wear while others don't and some individuals might experience motion sickness while riding amusement park rides, while their friends are having fun. However, sensory processing disorder is characterized by significant problems to organize sensation coming from the body and the environment and manifested by difficulties in the performance in one or more of the main areas of life: productivity, leisure and play[2] or activities of daily living.[3]

Sensory processing was defined by psychologist Anna Jean Ayres in 1972 as "the neurological process that organizes sensation from one's own body and from the environment and makes it possible to use the body effectively within the environment".[4][5] The senses provide information from various modalities, vision, audition, tactile, olfactory, taste, proprioception, vestibular system; in order to adequately function. The mid-brain and brain stem regions of the central nervous system are early centers in the processing pathway for multisensory integration. These brain regions are involved in processes including coordination, attention, arousal, and autonomic function. After sensory information passes through these centers, it is then routed to brain regions responsible for emotions, memory, and higher level cognitive functions.

Classification

Sensory processing disorders are classified into three broad categories: sensory modulation disorder, sensory based motor disorders and sensory discrimination disorders.[6][7][8]

  • Sensory modulation disorder (SMD) consists of over-responding,[6][9] or under-responding to sensory stimuli or seeking sensory stimulation. Sensory modulation refers to a complex central nervous system process[6][10] by which neural messages that convey information about the intensity, frequency, duration, complexity, and novelty of sensory stimuli are adjusted.[11] Subtypes are over-responsivity, under-responsivity and sensory craving (seeking)[12]
This group may include a fearful and/or anxious pattern, negative and/or stubborn behaviors, self-absorbed behaviors that are difficult to engage or creative or actively seeking sensation.[12]
  • Sensory-based motor disorder (SBMD) shows motor output that is disorganized as a result of incorrect processing of sensory information affecting postural control challenges, resulting in postural disorder, and/or developmental coordination disorder.[6][13]
  • Sensory discrimination disorder (SDD), or incorrect processing of sensory information. Incorrect processing of visual or auditory input, for example, may be seen in inattentiveness, disorganization, and poor school performance. Subtypes are: visual, auditory, tactile, taste/smell, position/movement, interoception.[6]

Causes

Current research in sensory processing is focusing on finding the neurological causes of SPD. EEG[14] and measuring event-related potential are traditionally used to explore the causes behind the behaviors observed in SPD. Some of the proposed underlying causes by current research are:

EEG recording
  • People with sensory over-responsivity might have increased D2 receptor in the striatum, related to aversion to tactile stimuli and reduced habituation. In animal models, prenatal stress significantly increased tactile avoidance.[17]
  • Recent research found an abnormal white matter microstructure in children with SPD, compared to typical children and those with other neurological disorders such as autism and ADHD.[18]

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms may vary according to the disorder's type and subtype present.

People suffering from over-responsivity might:

  • Dislike textures in fabrics, foods, grooming products or other materials found in daily living, to which most people would not react. This dislike interferes with normal function, for instance a child who refuses to wear socks or an adult who is so "picky" they can't go to restaurants with friends.
  • Get so car sick they refuse to be in a moving vehicle.
  • Refuse to kiss or hug, not because they don't like the person, but because the sensation of skin contact can be very negative.
  • Feel seriously discomforted, sick or threatened by normal sounds, lights, movements, smells, tastes, or even inner sensations as heartbeat.

People suffering from under-responsivity might:

  • Fidget excessively
  • Seek or make loud, disturbing noises
  • Suck on or bite clothing, fingers, pencils, etc.

Diagnosis

Sensory processing disorder is not recognized as a mental disorder in any of the medical manuals, such as the ICD-10[19] or the DSM-5.[20]

Diagnosis is primarily arrived at by the use of standardized tests, standardized questionnaires, expert observational scales, and free play observation at an Occupational Therapist gym. Observation of functional activities might be carried at school and home as well. Some scales that are not exclusively used in SPD evaluations are used to measure visual perception, function, neurology and motor skills.[21]

Depending on the country, diagnosis is made by different professionals, such as occupational therapists, psychologists, learning specialists, physiotherapists and/or speech and language therapists.[22] In some countries it is recommended to have a full psychological and neurological evaluation if symptoms are too severe.

Tests

Standardized tests

  • Sensory Integration and Praxis Test. (SIPT)
  • DeGangi-Berk Test of Sensory Integration (TSI)
  • Test of Sensory Functions in Infants (TSFI)[23]

Standardized questionnaires

  • Sensory Profile, (SP)[24]
  • Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile[23]
  • Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile
  • Sensory Profile School Companion
  • Sensory Processing Measure (SPM)[25]
  • Sensory Processing Measure Preeschool (SPM-P)[26]

Other tests used

Treatment

Main article: Sensory integration therapy

Several therapies have been developed to treat SPD.

Sensory integration therapy, Jean Ayres

The main form of sensory integration therapy is a type of occupational therapy that places a child in a room specifically designed to stimulate and challenge all of the senses.

During the session, the therapist works closely with the child to provide a level of sensory stimulation that the child can cope with, and encourage movement within the room. Sensory integration therapy is driven by four main principles:

  • Just right challenge (the child must be able to successfully meet the challenges that are presented through playful activities)
  • Adaptive response (the child adapts his behavior with new and useful strategies in response to the challenges presented)
  • Active engagement (the child will want to participate because the activities are fun)
  • Child directed (the child's preferences are used to initiate therapeutic experiences within the session)

Sensory processing therapy, Lucy Jane Miller

This therapy retains all of the above-mentioned four principles and adds:[31]

  • Intensity (person attends therapy daily for a prolonged period of time)
  • Developmental approach (therapist adapts to the developmental age of the person, against actual age)
  • Test-retest systematic evaluation (all clients are evaluated before and after)
  • Process driven vs. activity driven (therapist focuses on the "Just right" emotional connection and the process the reinforces the relationship)
  • Parent education (parent education sessions are scheduled into the therapy process)
  • "joie de vivre" (happiness of life is therapy's main goal, attained through social participation, self-regulation, and self-esteem)
  • Combination of best practice interventions (is often accompanied by integrated listening system therapy, floor time, and electronic media such as Xbox Kinect, Nintendo Wii, Makoto II machine training and others)

Other methods

Some of these treatments (for example, sensorimotor handling) have a questionable rationale and no empirical evidence. Other treatments (for example, prism lenses, physical exercise, and auditory integration training) have had studies with small positive outcomes, but few conclusions can be made about them due to methodological problems with the studies.[32] Although replicable treatments have been described and valid outcome measures are known, gaps exist in knowledge related to sensory integration dysfunction and therapy.[33] Empirical support is limited, therefore systematic evaluation is needed if these interventions are used.[34]

Children with hypo-reactivity may be exposed to strong sensations such as stroking with a brush, vibrations or rubbing. Play may involve a range of materials to stimulate the senses such as play dough or finger painting.

Children with hyper-reactivity may be exposed to peaceful activities including quiet music and gentle rocking in a softly lit room. Treats and rewards may be used to encourage children to tolerate activities they would normally avoid.

While occupational therapists using a sensory integration frame of reference work on increasing a child's ability to adequately process sensory input, other OTs may focus on environmental accommodations that parents and school staff can use to enhance the child's function at home, school, and in the community.[35][36] These may include selecting soft, tag-free clothing, avoiding fluorescent lighting, and providing ear plugs for "emergency" use (such as for fire drills).

Therapy for adults

There is a growing evidence base that points to and supports the notion that adults also show signs of sensory processing difficulties. In the United Kingdom early research and improved clinical outcomes for clients assessed as having sensory processing difficulties is indicating that the therapy may be an appropriate treatment.[37] The adult clients show a range of presentations including autism and Asperger's syndrome, as well as developmental coordination disorder and some mental health difficulties.[38] Therapists suggest that these presentations may arise from the difficulties adults with sensory processing difficulties encounter trying to negotiate the challenges and demands of engaging in everyday life.[39]

Epidemiology

Relationship to other disorders

Because comorbid conditions are common with sensory integration issues, a person may have other conditions as well. People who receive the diagnosis of sensory integration dysfunction may also have signs of anxiety problems, ADHD,[40] food intolerances, behavioral disorders and other disorders.

Autistic spectrum disorders and difficulties of sensory processing

Sensory processing disorder is a common comorbidity with autism spectrum disorders.[41][42][43][44] Although responses to sensory stimuli are more common and prominent in autistic children and adults, there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.[45] Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensory seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).[46] The responses may be more common in children: a pair of studies found that autistic children had impaired tactile perception while autistic adults did not.[47]

The Sensory Experiences Questionnaire has been developed to help identify the sensory processing patterns of children who may have autism.[48][49]

SPD and ADHD

It is speculated that SPD may be a misdiagnosis for persons with attention problems.[40] For example, a student who fails to repeat what has been said in class (due to boredom or distraction) might be referred for evaluation for sensory integration dysfunction. The student might then be evaluated by an occupational therapist to determine why he is having difficulty focusing and attending, and perhaps also evaluated by an audiologist or a speech-language pathologist for auditory processing issues or language processing issues.[40] Similarly, a child may be mistakenly labeled "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)" because impulsivity has been observed, when actually this impulsivity is limited to sensory seeking or avoiding.[50][51] A child might regularly jump out of his seat in class despite multiple warnings and threats because his poor proprioception (body awareness) causes him to fall out of his seat, and his anxiety over this potential problem causes him to avoid sitting whenever possible. If the same child is able to remain seated after being given an inflatable bumpy cushion to sit on (which gives him more sensory input), or, is able to remain seated at home or in a particular classroom but not in his main classroom, it is a sign that more evaluation is needed to determine the cause of his impulsivity.

Other comorbidities

Various conditions can involve SPD, such as schizophrenia,[52][53][54] succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency,[55] primary nocturnal enuresis,[56] prenatal alcohol exposure, learning difficulties[17] and autism,[51][57][58] as well as people with traumatic brain injury[59] or who have had cochlear implants placed.[60] and may have genetic problems such as Fragile X syndrome. Sensory integration dysfunction is not considered to be on the autism spectrum, and a child can receive a diagnosis of sensory integration dysfunction without any comorbid conditions.

Controversy

Manuals

SPD is in Stanley Greenspan’s Diagnostic Manual for Infancy and Early Childhood and as Regulation Disorders of Sensory Processing part of the The Zero to Three’s Diagnostic Classification.[61] but is not recognized in the manuals ICD-10 or in the recently updated DSM-5.[62] However, unusual reactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects is included as a possible but not necessary criterium for the diagnosis of autism.[63]

Misdiagnosis

Some state that sensory processing disorder is a distinct diagnosis, while others argue that differences in sensory responsiveness are features of other diagnoses.[64] The American Academy of Pediatrics, for example, advises against a diagnosis of SPD unless it is a symptom due to autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, or childhood anxiety disorder.[65] The neuroscientist David Eagleman has proposed that SPD may be a form of synesthesia, a perceptual condition in which the senses are blended.[66] Specifically, Eagleman suggests that instead of a sensory input "connecting to [a person's] color area [in the brain], it's connecting to an area involving pain or aversion or nausea".[67][68][69]

Researchers have described a treatable inherited sensory overstimulation disorder that meets diagnostic criteria for both attention deficit disorder and sensory integration dysfunction.[70]

Research

Over 130 articles on sensory integration have been published in peer-reviewed (mostly occupational therapy) journals. The difficulties of designing double-blind research studies of sensory integration dysfunction have been addressed by Temple Grandin and others. More research is needed.

Because the amount of research regarding the effectiveness of SPD therapy is limited and inconclusive, the American Academy of Pediatrics advises pediatricians to inform families about these limitations, talk with families about a trial period for SPD therapy, and teach families how to evaluate therapy effectiveness.[65]

History

Sensory processing disorders were first described in-depth by occupational therapist Anna Jean Ayres (1920–1989). According to Ayres's writings, an individual with SPD would, therefore, have a decreased ability to organize sensory information as it comes in through the senses.[71]

Ayres model

Ayres theoretical frame about what she called Sensory integration was developed after 6 factor analytic studies of populations of children with learning disabilities, perceptual motor disabilities and normal developing children.[72] Ayres created the following nosology based on the patterns that appeared on her factor analysis:

  • Dyspraxia: poor motor planning (more related to the vestibular system and proprioception)
  • Poor bilateral integration: inadequate use of both sides of the body simultaneously
  • Tactile defensiveness: negative reaction to tactile stimuli
  • Visual perceptual deficits: poor form and space perception and visual motor functions
  • Somatodyspraxia: poor motor planning (related to poor information coming from the tactile and proprioceptive systems)
  • Auditory-language problems

Both visual perceptual and auditory language deficits were thought to possess a strong cognitive component and a weak relationship to underlying sensory processing deficits, so they are not considered central deficits in many models of sensory processing.

In 1998, Mulligan performed a study on 10,000 sets of data, each representing an individual child. She performed confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses and found similar patterns of deficits with her data as Ayres did.[73]

Dunn model

Dunn's nosology uses two criteria:[74] response type (passive vs active) and sensory threshold to the stimuli (low or high) creating 4 types:[75]

  • low registration, high threshold with passive response.
  • sensory avoiding, low threshold and active response.
  • sensory seeking, high threshold and active response.
  • sensory sensitive, low threshold with passive response.

Miller model

Lucy Jane Miller proposed a new nosology, where "sensory integration dysfunction" was renamed into "Sensory processing disorder" to facilitate coordinated research work with other fields such as neurology, for example "the use of the term sensory integration often applies to a neurophysiologic cellular process rather than a behavioral response to sensory input as connoted by Ayres."[6] The current nosology of sensory processing disorders was developed by Miller, based on neurological underlying principles.

Other models

A wide variety of approaches have incorporated sensation in order to influence learning and behavior.[73]

  • The Alert Program for Self-Regulation is a complementary approach that encourages cognitive awareness of alertness often with the use of sensory strategies to support learning and behavior.
  • Other approaches primarily use passive sensory experiences or sensory stimulation based on specific protocols, such as the Wilbarger Approach and the Vestibular-Oculomotor Protocol.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Stein BE, Stanford TR, Rowland BA (December 2009). "The neural basis of multisensory integration in the midbrain: its organization and maturation". Hear. Res. 258 (1-2): 4–15. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2009.03.012. PMC 2787841. PMID 19345256. 
  2. ↑ Cosbey J, Johnston SS, Dunn ML (2010). "Sensory processing disorders and social participation". Am J Occup Ther 64 (3): 462–73. doi:10.5014/ajot.2010.09076. PMID 20608277. 
  3. ↑ "Sensory Processing Disorder Explained". SPD Foundation. 
  4. ↑ Ayres, A. Jean (1972). Sensory integration and learning disorders. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. ISBN 0-87424-303-3. OCLC 590960. 
  5. ↑ Ayres AJ (1972). "Types of sensory integrative dysfunction among disabled learners". Am J Occup Ther 26 (1): 13–8. PMID 5008164. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Miller LJ, Anzalone ME, Lane SJ, Cermak SA, Osten ET (2007). "Concept evolution in sensory integration: a proposed nosology for diagnosis". Am J Occup Ther 61 (2): 135–40. doi:10.5014/ajot.61.2.135. PMID 17436834. 
  7. ↑ Miller LJ, Nielsen DM, Schoen SA, Brett-Green BA (2009). "Perspectives on sensory processing disorder: a call for translational research". Front Integr Neurosci 3: 22. doi:10.3389/neuro.07.022.2009. PMC 2759332. PMID 19826493. 
  8. ↑ Zimmer M, Desch L (June 2012). "Sensory integration therapies for children with developmental and behavioral disorders". Pediatrics 129 (6): 1186–9. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0876. PMID 22641765. 
  9. ↑ Kinnealey, M.; Koenig, KP.; Smith, S. (2011). "Relationships between sensory modulation and social supports and health-related quality of life.". Am J Occup Therapy 65 (3): 320–7. doi:10.5014/ajot.2011.001370. PMID 21675338. 
  10. ↑ Schaaf RC, Benevides T, Blanche EI, et al. (2010). "Parasympathetic functions in children with sensory processing disorder". Front Integr Neurosci 4: 4. doi:10.3389/fnint.2010.00004. PMC 2839854. PMID 20300470. 
  11. ↑ Miller, L. J.; Reisman, J. E.; McIntosh, D. N; Simon, J. "An ecological model of sensory modulation: Performance of children with fragile X syndrome, autistic disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and sensory modulation dysfunction". In S. S. Roley, E. I. Blanche, & R. C. Schaff. Understanding the nature of sensory integration with diverse populations (Tucson, AZ:: Therapy Skill Builders). pp. 75–88. ISBN 9780761615156. OCLC 46678625. Retrieved 2013-07-26. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 James K, Miller LJ, Schaaf R, Nielsen DM, Schoen SA (2011). "Phenotypes within sensory modulation dysfunction". Compr Psychiatry 52 (6): 715–24. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.11.010. PMID 21310399. 
  13. ↑ Bair WN, Kiemel T, Jeka JJ, Clark JE (2012). "Development of multisensory reweighting is impaired for quiet stance control in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD)". PLoS ONE 7 (7): e40932. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040932. PMC 3399799. PMID 22815872. 
  14. ↑ Davies PL, Gavin WJ (2007). "Validating the diagnosis of sensory processing disorders using EEG technology". Am J Occup Ther 61 (2): 176–89. doi:10.5014/ajot.61.2.176. PMID 17436840. 
  15. ↑ Davies PL, Chang WP, Gavin WJ (May 2009). "Maturation of sensory gating performance in children with and without sensory processing disorders". Int J Psychophysiol 72 (2): 187–97. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.12.007. PMC 2695879. PMID 19146890. 
  16. ↑ Kisley MA, Noecker TL, Guinther PM (July 2004). "Comparison of sensory gating to mismatch negativity and self-reported perceptual phenomena in healthy adults". Psychophysiology 41 (4): 604–12. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2004.00191.x. PMID 15189483. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Schneider ML, Moore CF, Gajewski LL, et al. (2008). "Sensory processing disorder in a primate model: evidence from a longitudinal study of prenatal alcohol and prenatal stress effects". Child Dev 79 (1): 100–13. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01113.x. PMID 18269511. 
  18. ↑ Owen, Julia P.; Marco, Elysa J.; Desai, Shivani; Fourie, Emily; Harris, Julia; Hill, Susanna S.; Arnett, Anne B.; Mukherjee, Pratik (2013). "Abnormal white matter microstructure in children with sensory processing disorders". NeuroImage: Clinical 2: 844–853. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.06.009. ISSN 2213-1582. 
  19. ↑ http://priory.com/psych/ICD.htm
  20. ↑ Lucy Jane Miller. "Final Decision for DSM-V". Sensory Processing Disorder Foundation. Retrieved 3 October 2013. 
  21. ↑ Kinnealey, Moya; Miller, Lucy J (1993). "Sensory integration and learning disabilities". In Helen L Hopkins; Helen D Smith; Helen S Willard; Clare S Spackman. Willard and Spackman's occupational therapy (8 ed.) (Philadelphia: Lippincott, cop.). pp. 474–489. ISBN 9780397548774. OCLC 438843342. Retrieved 2013-07-23. 
  22. ↑ "Course information and booking". Sensory Integration Network. Retrieved 23 July 2013. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Eeles AL, Spittle AJ, Anderson PJ, et al. (April 2013). "Assessments of sensory processing in infants: a systematic review". Dev Med Child Neurol 55 (4): 314–26. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04434.x. PMID 23157488. 
  24. ↑ Ermer J, Dunn W (April 1998). "The sensory profile: a discriminant analysis of children with and without disabilities". Am J Occup Ther 52 (4): 283–90. PMID 9544354. 
  25. ↑ Miller-Kuhaneck H, Henry DA, Glennon TJ, Mu K (2007). "Development of the Sensory Processing Measure-School: initial studies of reliability and validity". Am J Occup Ther 61 (2): 170–5. doi:10.5014/ajot.61.2.170. PMID 17436839. 
  26. ↑ Glennon, Tara J.; Miller Kuhaneck, Heather; Herzberg, David (2011). "The Sensory Processing Measure–Preschool (SPM-P)—Part One: Description of the Tool and Its Use in the Preschool Environment". Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention 4 (1): 42–52. doi:10.1080/19411243.2011.573245. ISSN 1941-1243. 
  27. ↑ Brown T, Hockey SC (January 2013). "The Validity and Reliability of Developmental Test of Visual Perception-2nd Edition (DTVP-2)". Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 33 (4): 426–39. doi:10.3109/01942638.2012.757573. PMID 23356245. 
  28. ↑ Deitz JC, Kartin D, Kopp K (2007). "Review of the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2)". Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 27 (4): 87–102. PMID 18032151. 
  29. ↑ Gioia GA, Isquith PK, Guy SC, Kenworthy L (September 2000). "Behavior rating inventory of executive function". Child Neuropsychol 6 (3): 235–8. doi:10.1076/chin.6.3.235.3152. PMID 11419452. 
  30. ↑ Gioia GA, Isquith PK, Retzlaff PD, Espy KA (December 2002). "Confirmatory factor analysis of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) in a clinical sample". Child Neuropsychol 8 (4): 249–57. doi:10.1076/chin.8.4.249.13513. PMID 12759822. 
  31. ↑ "The "So What?" of Sensory Intergration Therapy : Joie de Vivre" (pdf). spdfoundation. 
  32. ↑ Baranek GT (2002). "Efficacy of sensory and motor interventions for children with autism". J Autism Dev Disord 32 (5): 397–422. doi:10.1023/A:1020541906063. PMID 12463517. 
  33. ↑ Schaaf RC, Miller LJ (2005). "Occupational therapy using a sensory integrative approach for children with developmental disabilities". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 11 (2): 143–8. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20067. PMID 15977314. 
  34. ↑ Hodgetts S, Hodgetts W (2007). "Somatosensory stimulation interventions for children with autism: literature review and clinical considerations". Can J Occup Ther 74 (5): 393–400. doi:10.2182/cjot.07.013. PMID 18183774. 
  35. ↑ Nancy Peske; Lindsey Biel (2005). Raising a sensory smart child: the definitive handbook for helping your child with sensory integration issues. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303488-X. OCLC 56420392. 
  36. ↑ "Sensory Checklist". Raising a Sensory Smart Child. Retrieved 16 July 2013. 
  37. ↑ Urwin R, Ballinger C. (February 2005). "The Effectiveness of Sensory Integration Therapy to Improve Functional Behaviour in Adults with Learning Disabilities: Five Single-Case Experimental Designs". Brit J. Occupational Therapy 68 (2): 56–66. 
  38. ↑ Brown, Stephen; Shankar, Rohit; Smith, Kathryn (2009). "Borderline personality disorder and sensory processing impairment". Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry 13 (4): 10–16. doi:10.1002/pnp.127. ISSN 1367-7543. 
  39. ↑ Brown S, Shankar R, Smith K, et al. Sensory Processing Disorder in mental health. Occupational Therapy News 2006;May:28–29.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Ghanizadeh A (June 2011). "Sensory processing problems in children with ADHD, a systematic review". Psychiatry Investig 8 (2): 89–94. doi:10.4306/pi.2011.8.2.89. PMC 3149116. PMID 21852983. 
  41. ↑ Russo N, Foxe JJ, Brandwein AB, Altschuler T, Gomes H, Molholm S (October 2010). "Multisensory processing in children with autism: high-density electrical mapping of auditory-somatosensory integration". Autism Res 3 (5): 253–67. doi:10.1002/aur.152. PMID 20730775. 
  42. ↑ Green SA, Ben-Sasson A (December 2010). "Anxiety disorders and sensory over-responsivity in children with autism spectrum disorders: is there a causal relationship?". J Autism Dev Disord 40 (12): 1495–504. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1007-x. PMC 2980623. PMID 20383658. 
  43. ↑ Baron-Cohen S, Ashwin E, Ashwin C, Tavassoli T, Chakrabarti B (May 2009). "Talent in autism: hyper-systemizing, hyper-attention to detail and sensory hypersensitivity". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364 (1522): 1377–83. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0337. PMC 2677592. PMID 19528020. 
  44. ↑ Marco EJ, Hinkley LB, Hill SS, Nagarajan SS (May 2011). "Sensory processing in autism: a review of neurophysiologic findings". Pediatr. Res. 69 (5 Pt 2): 48R–54R. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182130c54. PMC 3086654. PMID 21289533. 
  45. ↑ Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S (2005). "Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46 (12): 1255–68. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x. PMID 16313426. 
  46. ↑ Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E (2008). "A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders". J Autism Dev Disord 39 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3. PMID 18512135. 
  47. ↑ Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ (2006). "Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing". Child Neuropsychol 12 (4–5): 279–98. doi:10.1080/09297040600681190. PMC 1803025. PMID 16911973. 
  48. ↑ Baranek GT, David FJ, Poe MD, Stone WL, Watson LR (June 2006). "Sensory Experiences Questionnaire: discriminating sensory features in young children with autism, developmental delays, and typical development". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47 (6): 591–601. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01546.x. PMID 16712636. 
  49. ↑ Little LM, Freuler AC, Houser MB, et al. (2011). "Psychometric validation of the Sensory Experiences Questionnaire". Am J Occup Ther 65 (2): 207–10. PMC 3163482. PMID 21476368. 
  50. ↑ Cheng, M.; Boggett-Carsjens, J. (May 2005). "Consider sensory processing disorders in the explosive child: case report and review.". Can Child Adolesc Psychiatr Rev 14 (2): 44–8. PMC 2542921. PMID 19030515. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Lane, SJ.; Reynolds, S.; Thacker, L. (Mar 2010). "Sensory Over-Responsivity and ADHD: Differentiating Using Electrodermal Responses, Cortisol, and Anxiety.". Front Integr Neuroscience 4. doi:10.3389/fnint.2010.00008. PMC 2885866. PMID 20556242. 
  52. ↑ Ross LA, Saint-Amour D, Leavitt VM, Molholm S, Javitt DC, Foxe JJ (December 2007). "Impaired multisensory processing in schizophrenia: deficits in the visual enhancement of speech comprehension under noisy environmental conditions". Schizophr. Res. 97 (1-3): 173–83. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.08.008. PMID 17928202. 
  53. ↑ Leavitt VM, Molholm S, Ritter W, Shpaner M, Foxe JJ (September 2007). "Auditory processing in schizophrenia during the middle latency period (10–50 ms): high-density electrical mapping and source analysis reveal subcortical antecedents to early cortical deficits". J Psychiatry Neurosci 32 (5): 339–53. PMC 1963354. PMID 17823650. 
  54. ↑ Rabinowicz EF, Silipo G, Goldman R, Javitt DC (December 2000). "Auditory sensory dysfunction in schizophrenia: imprecision or distractibility?". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57 (12): 1149–55. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.12.1149. PMID 11115328. 
  55. ↑ Kratz SV (June 2009). "Sensory integration intervention: historical concepts, treatment strategies and clinical experiences in three patients with succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) deficiency". J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 32 (3): 353–60. doi:10.1007/s10545-009-1149-1. PMID 19381864. 
  56. ↑ Tian YH, Cheng H (October 2008). "[Sensory integration function in children with primary nocturnal enuresis]". Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi (in Chinese) 10 (5): 611–3. PMID 18947482. 
  57. ↑ Tomchek SD, Dunn W (2007). "Sensory processing in children with and without autism: a comparative study using the short sensory profile". Am J Occup Ther 61 (2): 190–200. PMID 17436841. 
  58. ↑ Kern JK, Trivedi MH, Grannemann BD, et al. (March 2007). "Sensory correlations in autism". Autism 11 (2): 123–34. doi:10.1177/1362361307075702. PMID 17353213. 
  59. ↑ Slobounov S, Tutwiler R, Sebastianelli W, Slobounov E (July 2006). "Alteration of postural responses to visual field motion in mild traumatic brain injury". Neurosurgery 59 (1): 134–9; discussion 134–9. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000219197.33182.3F. PMID 16823309. 
  60. ↑ Bharadwaj SV, Daniel LL, Matzke PL (2009). "Sensory-processing disorder in children with cochlear implants". Am J Occup Ther 63 (2): 208–13. PMID 19432059. 
  61. ↑ "Infants and Toddlers Who Require Specialty Services and Supports" (pdf). Department of Community Health—Mental Health Services to Children and Families. 
  62. ↑ "American Psychiatric Association Board of Trustees Approves DSM-5". Retrieved 15 July 2013. 
  63. ↑ Susan L. Hyman (2013). "New DSM-5 includes changes to autism criteria". AAP News. American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved 3 October 2013. 
  64. ↑ Joanne Flanagan (2009). "Sensory processing disorder". Pediatric News. Kennedy Krieger.org. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "Sensory Integration Therapies for Children With Developmental and Behavioral Disorders". Pediatrics: Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. 
  66. ↑ Eagleman, David; Cytowic, Richard E. (2009). Wednesday is indigo blue: discovering the brain of synesthesia. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01279-0. OCLC 233697438. 
  67. ↑ The blended senses of synesthesia, Los Angeles Times, Feb 20, 2012.
  68. ↑ Zamm A, Schlaug G, Eagleman DM, Loui P (July 2013). "Pathways to seeing music: enhanced structural connectivity in colored-music synesthesia". Neuroimage 74: 359–66. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.02.024. PMID 23454047. 
  69. ↑ Cohen Kadosh R, Terhune DB (February 2012). "Redefining synaesthesia?". Br J Psychol 103 (1): 20–3. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2010.02003.x. PMID 22229770. 
  70. ↑ Segal MM, Rogers GF, Needleman HL, Chapman CA (2007). "Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation". J Child Neurol 22 (12): 1408–10. doi:10.1177/0883073807307095. PMID 18174562. 
  71. ↑ Ayres, A. Jean.; Robbins, Jeff (2005). Sensory integration and the child : understanding hidden sensory challenge 25th Anniversary Edition. Los Angeles, CA: WPS. ISBN 978-0-87424-437-3. OCLC 63189804. 
  72. ↑ Bundy, Anita. C.; Lane, J. Shelly; Murray, Elizabeth A. (2002). Sensory integration, Theory and practice. Philadelphia, PA: FA Davis Company. ISBN 0-8036-0545-5. 
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Smith Roley, Susanne; Zoe Mailloux; Heather Miller-Kuhaneck; Tara Glennon (SEPTEMBER 2007). "Understanding Ayres Sensory Integration". OT PRACTICE. 17 12. Retrieved 19 July 2013. 
  74. ↑ Dunn, Winnie (April 1997). "The Impact of Sensory Processing Abilities on the Daily Lives of Young Children and Their Families: A Conceptual Model". Infants & Young Children: April 1997 9 (4). Retrieved 2013-07-19. 
  75. ↑ Dunn W (2001). "The sensations of everyday life: empirical, theoretical, and pragmatic considerations". Am J Occup Ther 55 (6): 608–20. doi:10.5014/ajot.55.6.608. PMID 12959225. 

Further reading

External links

Special senses
Touch
Other
Main articles
Sub-types
Notable publications
Notable experts
Relevant drugs
Other

M: PSO/PSI

mepr

dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo

proc (eval/thrp), drug (N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

Main
Diagnoses
Related conditions
Controversies
Diagnostic scales
Lists

M: PSO/PSI

mepr

dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo

proc (eval/thrp), drug (N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D)

Documentary
Docudrama/Biopic
Educational films
Fictional films
  • Portal:Film
  • Portal:Pervasive Developmental Disorders
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike; additional terms may apply for the media files.