Saeculum obscurum
Saeculum obscurum (Latin: the Dark Age) is a name given to a period in the history of the Papacy during the first half of the 10th century, beginning with the installation of Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasting for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII in 964. During this period, the Popes were influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives.
Periodization
The period was first identified and named by the Italian Cardinal and ecclesiastical historian Caesar Baronius in his Annales Ecclesiastici in the sixteenth century.[1] Baronius' primary source for his history of this period was Liutprand of Cremona. Other scholars have dated the period more broadly or narrowly, and other terms, such as the Pornocracy (German: Pornokratie, from Greek pornokratiā, "prostitute rule") and the Rule of the Harlots (German: Hurenregiment), were coined by Protestant German theologians in the nineteenth century[citation needed].
Historian Will Durant refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy".[2]
10th-century Popes
The Theophylacti family originated from Theophylactus. They held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility such as Judex, vestararius, gloriosissimus dux, consul and senator, and magister militum.[3] Theophylact's wife Theodora and daughter Marozia held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs, and marriages.[4]
Marozia became the concubine of Pope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands.[5] She ensured that her son John was seated as Pope John XI according to Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae (958–62), by Liutprand of Cremona (c. 920–72). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former lover Pope John X (who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husband Guy of Tuscany possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite as Pope Leo VI.[6] There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view.
Theodora and Marozia undoubtedly held great sway over the Popes during this time.[citation needed] In particular, as political rulers of Rome they had effective control over the election of new Popes. Much that is alleged about the saeculum obscurum comes from the histories of Liutprand, bishop of Cremona. Liutprand took part in the Assembly of Bishops which deposed Pope John XII and was a political enemy of the Roman aristocracy and its control over Papal elections. Lindsay Brook writes:We must be especially circumspect about the writing of Liutprand of Cremona, perhaps the most polemical of the tenth century chroniclers, who had his own agenda to promote the revived western Roman Empire.[7]Further:
It would be misleading to portray all, or even most, of the popes of the era as worldly and corrupt. Surviving documents (and there are obvious lacunae) make it clear that many were competent administrators, and skilful diplomats in difficult and dangerous times. Some were even reformers, keen to root out discreditable practices such as simony. Others ordered the rebuilding and restoration of Rome's churches and palaces... Rather, it is the manner of the election of many of them and their symbiotic relationship with the Roman aristocracy that has earned their regime the designation pornocracy."[8]
List of Popes during the saeculum obscurum
- Pope Sergius III (904–911), alleged lover of Marozia
- Pope Anastasius III (911–913)
- Pope Lando (913–914)
- Pope John X (914–928), alleged lover of Theodora (the mother), allegedly killed by Marozia
- Pope Leo VI (928–928)
- Pope Stephen VII (928–931)
- Pope John XI (931–935), son of Marozia, alleged son of Pope Sergius III
- Pope Leo VII (936–939)
- Pope Stephen VIII (939–942)
- Pope Marinus II (942–946)
- Pope Agapetus II (946–955)
- Pope John XII (955–963), grandson of Marozia, by her son Alberic II of Spoleto.
Family tree
| Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum 864–924 | Theodora | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hugh of Italy 887-924-948 (also married Marozia) | Alberic I of Spoleto d. 925 | Marozia 890–937 | Pope Sergius III 904–911 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alda of Vienne | Alberic II of Spoleto 905–954 | David or Deodatus | Pope John XI 931–935 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Gregory I, Count of Tusculum | Pope John XII 955–964 | Pope Benedict VII 974-983 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pope Benedict VIII Pope 1012–1024 | Alberic III, Count of Tusculum d. 1044 | Pope John XIX Pope 1024–1032 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Peter, Duke of the Romans | Gaius | Octavianus | Pope Benedict IX 1012–1055 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Tusculan Papacy, 1012-59
After several Crescentii family Popes up to 1012, the Theophylacti still occasionally nominated sons as Popes:
- Pope Benedict VIII, son of Count Gregory I; (1012-24)
- Pope John XIX, son of Count Gregory I, (1024-32)
- Pope Benedict IX, son of Alberic III; (1032-44; 1045; 1047-48)
- Antipope Benedict X, son of Alberic III (1058-59); driven out of Rome after a small war.
Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious Godfather, Pope Gregory VI (1045-46). He then changed his mind, seized the Lateran Palace and became Pope for the third time in 1047-48.
The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election of Pope Nicholas II, who was assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was elected Pope Gregory VII in 1073 and introduced the Gregorian Reforms, increasing the power and independence of the papacy.
See also
- List of sexually active popes
- Pope Joan (legendary, fictional; legends about her may have stemmed from stories about the Pornocracy)
- Papal appointment
References
- Church and Society in a Crisis Age: Tenth and Eleventh Century Europe by Harlie Kay Gallatin.
- The Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Liutprand of Cremona
Notes
- ↑ Dwyer, John C. (1998). Church history: twenty centuries of Catholic Christianity. Mahwah, USA.: Paulist Press. p. 155. ISBN 0-8091-3830-1.
- ↑ Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. p. 537
- ↑ Poole, Reginald L (1917). "Papal chronology in the eleventh century". English Historical Review. 1917a41 (32): 204–214.
- ↑ Fedele, Pietro (1910 & 1911). "Ricerche per la storia di Rome e del papato al. sec. X". Archivo della Reale Società Romana di Storia Patria, 33: 177–247; & 34: 75–116, 393–423.
- ↑ Ide, Arthur Frederick (1987). Unzipped: The Popes Bare All : A Frank Study of Sex and Corruption in the Vatican. Austin, USA.: American Atheist Press. ISBN 0-910309-43-4.
- ↑ Stark, Rodney (2004). For the glory of God. Princeton, USA.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11950-2.
- ↑ Brook, Lindsay (2003). "Popes and Pornocrats: Rome in the early middle ages". Foundations 1 (1): 5–21.
- ↑ Brook, Lindsay (2003). "Popes and Pornocrats: Rome in the early middle ages". Foundations 1 (1): 5–21.
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