Red meat

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Red meat (disambiguation).

Red meat in traditional culinary terminology is meat which is red when raw and not white when cooked. Red meat also includes the meat of most adult mammals.

An uncooked rib roast.
Roast beef.

Definitions

Gastronomic

In gastronomy, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat. The exact definition varies by time, place, and culture, but the meat from adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is invariably considered red, while chicken and rabbit meat is invariably considered white. The meat of young mammals such as milk-fed veal calves, sheep, and pigs is traditionally considered white; while the meat of duck and goose is considered red.[1] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. Veal calves is traditionally a red meat if it is naturally fed (French: viandes noires — "black meats").[2]

Nutritional

The old determinant of the nutritional definition of the color of meat is the concentration of myoglobin. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1–0.3%; young beef has 0.4–1.0%; and old beef has 1.5–2.0%.[3]

According to the USDA all meats obtained from livestock (i.e., from mammals) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than chicken or fish.[4]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[5] Red meat is the richest source of lipoic acid, a powerful antioxidant.[6]

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[7] The liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.

Food pyramid

The 1992 edition of the USDA food guide pyramid has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat.[8] The 2005 edition, MyPyramid, recommends lean forms of red meat.[9]

Potential health risks

There is significant controversy about the health effects of consuming red meat. Part of this is due to the fact that studies (cited below) show that red meat is not a uniform product but rather seems to vary significantly in health effect based on fat content, processing and preparation. Many studies do not differentiate between these factors. More recent studies, such as a 2010 Harvard University study [10] covering over one million people, have studied the effect of fresh (unprocessed) versus processed red meat and found processed meat to have significant health risks, but no effect for unprocessed red meat. A massive study conducted by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition and published in 2013 which followed over 400,000 subjects showed increased mortality among subjects that consumed processed meat regularly, but no effect for unprocessed red meat.[11] Yet another study linked consumption of processed meat to premature death (after adjusting for confounding factors), even though a consumption of a small amount of red meat appeared to have beneficial effects.[12]

Colorectal cancer

Due to the many studies that have found a link between red meat intake and colorectal cancer,[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] the American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund stated that there is convincing evidence that red meat intake increases the risk for colorectal cancer.[21]

Professor Sheila Bingham of the Dunn Human Nutrition Unit attributes this to the haemoglobin and myoglobin molecules which are found in red meat. She suggests these molecules, when ingested trigger a process called nitrosation in the gut which leads to the formation of carcinogens.[22][23][24] Others have suggested that it is due to the presence of carcinogenic compounds called heterocyclic amines, which are created in the cooking process.[14][25][26] However, this may not be limited to red meat, since a study from the Harvard School of Public Health found that people who ate skinless chicken five times or more per week had a 52% higher risk of developing bladder cancer although not people who ate chicken with skin or other red meats such as hot dogs and Hamburgers.[27]

A 2011 study of 17,000 individuals found that people consuming the most grilled and well-done meat had a 56 and 59% higher rate of cancer.[28]

Other cancers

There is suggestive evidence that red meat intake increases the risk of oesophageal, lung, pancreatic and endometrial cancer.[21] As a result, WCRF recommends limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11 oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."[29]

Some studies have linked consumption of large amounts of red meat with breast cancer,[30][31] stomach cancer,[32] lymphoma,[33] bladder cancer,[34] lung cancer[35] and prostate cancer[34][36][37] (although other studies have found no relationship between red meat and prostate cancer[38][39]).

A 2011 study of almost 500,000 participants found that those in the highest quintile of red meat consumption had a 19% increased risk of kidney cancer.[40]

Cardiovascular diseases

The postwar Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of CHD and marked the beginning of our current understanding.[41]

Many studies associate red meat consumption with cardiovascular diseases. Specifically red meat consumption is associated with ischemic heart disease, stroke,[42] with greater intima-media thickness, (an indicator of atherosclerosis),[34][43] acute coronary syndrome,[44] A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women,[45]

Processed Meat Vs Unprocessed

The consensus on the role of red meat consumption to increased risk of cardiovascular diseases has changed in recent years. Studies that differentiate between processed and fresh red meat have failed to find a link between unprocessed red meat consumption and heart disease. A major Harvard University meta-study [46][47] in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that the "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."

Mechanisms

Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on serum cholesterol,[48] that red meat contains arachidonic acid,[49] heme iron,[50] and homocysteine.,[51] its high content of saturated fat.[34] Bacteria in the digestive tract of people who eat meat have been found to produce a spike in TMAO when supplied with carnitine (abundant in red meat).[52][53][54][55][56][57] TMAO is a metabolite that promotes atherosclerosis, a thickening of the arteries.

Risk

A study suggests that eating 50g (less than 2oz) of processed meat per day increases risk of coronary heart disease by 42%, and diabetes by 19%. Equivalent levels of fat, including saturated fats, in unprocessed red meat (even when eating twice as much per day) did not show any deleterious effects, leading the researchers to suggest that "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."

Those that eat more than 8 servings of red meat per month are 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.[58]

A 21-year follow up of about thirty thousand Seventh-day Adventists (adventists are known for presenting a "health message" that recommends vegetarianism) found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.[59]

The risk of coronary disease due to high cholesterol can be mitigated by switching to a leaner red meat. According to one study, funded by the beef producers advocacy group, National Cattlemen's Beef Association, eating lean meat (bout red and white) produced nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups.[60][61]

Controversial studies

A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute found a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases, as well as increased mortality from all causes.[62] This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire,[63] which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.[64][65]

Diabetes

Red meat intake has been associated with an increased risk of type II diabetes.[66][67][68] Interventions in which red meat is removed from the diet can lower albuminuria levels.[69] Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve glomerular filtration rate.[70]

Other findings have suggested that the association may be due to saturated fat, trans fat and dietary cholesterol, rather than red meat per se.[68][71][72] An additional confound is that diets high in processed meat could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.[73]

One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes”.[74]

Obesity

The Diogenes project used data from ninety thousand men and women over about seven years and found that "higher intake of total protein, and protein from animal sources was associated with subsequent weight gain for both genders, strongest among women, and the association was mainly attributable to protein from red and processed meat and poultry rather than from fish and dairy sources. There was no overall association between intake of plant protein and subsequent changes in weight."[75] They also found an association between red meat consumption and increased waist circumference.

A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower BMIs.[76] A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.[77]

A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist.[78] In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain.[79] Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."[80]

A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain.[81] Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.[82][83]

Other health issues

Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to hypertension,[34] and arthritis.[34][84]

Culture

In some cultures, eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male rite of passage.[85]

See also

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References

  1. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989
  2. ↑ Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  3. ↑ "Iowa State Animal Science". Retrieved 2009-09-16. 
  4. ↑ "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16. 
  5. ↑ Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet, September 1990, http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf
  6. ↑ The Nutrition Reporter newsletter, Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Quite Possibly the "Universal" Antioxidant, July 1996, http://www.thenutritionreporter.com/Alpha-Lipoic.html
  7. ↑ http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers
  8. ↑ Harvard School of Public Health, Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat, 2008, http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html
  9. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture, Inside the Pyramid, 2005, http://www.mypyramid.gov/pyramid/meat.html
  10. ↑
  11. ↑ European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition; Sabine Rohrmann, Kim Overvad, H Bas Bueno-de-Mesquita, Marianne U Jakobsen, Rikke Egeberg, Anne Tjønneland, Laura Nailler, Marie-Christine Boutron-Ruault, Françoise Clavel-Chapelon, Vittorio Krogh, Domenico Palli, Salvatore Panico, Rosario Tumino, Fulvio Ricceri, Manuela M Bergmann, Heiner Boeing, Kuanrong Li, Rudolf Kaaks, Kay-Tee Khaw, Nicholas J Wareham, Francesca L Crowe, Timothy J Key, Androniki Naska, Antonia Trichopoulou, Dimitirios Trichopoulos, Max Leenders, Petra HM Peeters, Dagrun Engeset, Christine L Parr, Guri Skeie, Paula Jakszyn, María-José Sánchez, José M Huerta, M Luisa Redondo, Aurelio Barricarte, Pilar Amiano, Isabel Drake, Emily Sonestedt, Göran Hallmans, Ingegerd Johansson, Veronika Fedirko, Isabelle Romieux, Pietro Ferrari, Teresa Norat, Anne C Vergnaud, Elio Riboli, Jakob Linseisen (7 March 2013). "Meat consumption and mortality – results from the E uropean Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". BMC Medicine. 11:63. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-63. Retrieved March 7, 2013. "The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer." 
  12. ↑ "Processed Meat Linked to Premature Death, Large Study Finds". ScienceDaily. 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2013-03-14. 
  13. ↑ Eating Lots of Red Meat Linked to Colon Cancer, American Cancer Society
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  15. ↑ Sinha, R. et al. “Well-done, grilled red meat increases the risk of colorectal adenomas.” Cancer Research 59.17 (1999): 4320.
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  19. ↑ Recommendations for Cancer Prevention
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  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5. 
  22. ↑ "Red meat cancer risk clue found". BBC News. 2006-01-31. 
  23. ↑ Tappel, A. (2007). "Heme of consumed red meat can act as a catalyst of oxidative damage and could initiate colon, breast and prostate cancers, heart disease and other diseases". Medical Hypotheses 68 (3): 562–564. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2006.08.025. PMID 17045417. 
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  28. ↑ Ferrucci, L. M.; Sinha, R.; Huang, W. -Y.; Berndt, S. I.; Katki, H. A.; Schoen, R. E.; Hayes, R. B.; Cross, A. J. (2011). "Meat consumption and the risk of incident distal colon and rectal adenoma". British Journal of Cancer. doi:10.1038/bjc.2011.549. 
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  47. ↑ http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2010-releases/processed-meats-unprocessed-heart-disease-diabetes.html
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  52. ↑ "New Health Culprit Carnitine Found in Red Meat". The Wall Street Journal. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-07. 
  53. ↑ "It’s Not Just the Fat: There’s Another Way Red Meat May Harm the Heart". Time Magazine. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09. 
  54. ↑ "Culprit in Heart Disease Goes Beyond Meat’s Fat". The New York Times. 2013-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-09. 
  55. ↑ "Chemical in Red Meat Linked to Heart Disease". Voice of America. 2013-04-09. Retrieved 2013-04-09. 
  56. ↑ "Carnitine chemical, not fat, may explain link between red meat and heart disease". CBS News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09. 
  57. ↑ "Red meat linked to heart disease". NBC News. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2013-04-09. 
  58. ↑ Kontogianni, M. D.; Panagiotakos, D. B.; Pitsavos, C.; Chrysohoou, C.; Stefanadis, C. (2007). "Relationship between meat intake and the development of acute coronary syndromes: The CARDIO2000 case–control study". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62 (2): 171–177. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602713. PMID 17356558. 
  59. ↑ Kahn, H. A.; Phillips, R. L.; Snowdon, D. A.; Choi, W. (1984). "Association between reported diet and all-cause mortality. Twenty-one-year follow-up on 27,530 adult Seventh-Day Adventists". American Journal of Epidemiology 119 (5): 775–787. PMID 6720674. 
  60. ↑ Science Daily, Study Shows Lean Red Meat Can Play A Role In Low-Fat Diet, 1999, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990702075933.htm
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  67. ↑ Fung, T. T. et al. “Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women.” Archives of internal medicine 164.20 (2004): 2235.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Van Dam, R. M.; Willett, W. C.; Rimm, E. B.; Stampfer, M. J.; Hu, F. B. (2002). "Dietary Fat and Meat Intake in Relation to Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Men". Diabetes Care 25 (3): 417–424. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.3.417. PMID 11874924. 
  69. ↑ de Mello, V. D. F. et al. “Withdrawal of red meat from the usual diet reduces albuminuria and improves serum fatty acid profile in type 2 diabetes patients with macroalbuminuria.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83.5 (2006): 1032.
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  71. ↑ Hu, F. B.; Van Dam, S.; Liu, R. M. (2001). "Diet and risk of Type II diabetes: the role of types of fat and carbohydrate". Diabetologia 44 (7): 805–817. doi:10.1007/s001250100547. PMID 11508264. 
  72. ↑ Feskens, E. J. M.; Kromhout, D. (1990). "Habitual Dietary Intake and Glucose Tolerance in Euglycaemic Men: The Zutphen Study". International Journal of Epidemiology 19 (4): 953–959. doi:10.1093/ije/19.4.953. PMID 2084027. 
  73. ↑ Schulze, M. B.; Manson, J. E.; Willett, W. C.; Hu, F. B. (2003). "Processed meat intake and incidence of Type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women". Diabetologia 46 (11): 1465–1473. doi:10.1007/s00125-003-1220-7. PMID 14576980. 
  74. ↑ Pan, A.; Sun, Q.; Bernstein, A. M.; Schulze, M. B.; Manson, J. E.; Willett, W. C.; Hu, F. B. (2011). "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94 (4): 1088–1096. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMC 3173026. PMID 21831992. 
  75. ↑ Halkjær, J.; Olsen, A.; Overvad, K.; Jakobsen, M. U.; Boeing, H.; Buijsse, B.; Palli, D.; Tognon, G.; Du, H.; Van Der a, D. L.; Forouhi, N. G.; Wareham, N. J.; Feskens, E. J. M.; Sørensen, T. I. A.; Tjønneland, A. (2010). "Intake of total, animal and plant protein and subsequent changes in weight or waist circumference in European men and women: The Diogenes project". International Journal of Obesity 35 (8): 1104–1113. doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.254. PMID 21139559. 
  76. ↑ Appleby, P.; Thorogood, M.; Mann, J.; Key, T. (1998). "Low body mass index in non-meat eaters: the possible roles of animal fat, dietary fibre and alcohol". International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 22 (5): 454–460. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800607. PMID 9622343. 
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  79. ↑ Bes-Rastrollo, M.; Sánchez-Villegas, A.; Gómez-Gracia, E.; Martínez, J. A.; Pajares, R. M.; Martínez-González, M. A. (2006). "Predictors of weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: The Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra Study 1". The American journal of clinical nutrition 83 (2): 362–370; quiz 370–5. PMID 16469996. 
  80. ↑ Wang, Y.; Beydoun, M. A. (2009). "Meat consumption is associated with obesity and central obesity among US adults". International Journal of Obesity 33 (6): 621–628. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.45. PMC 2697260. PMID 19308071. 
  81. ↑ Hasselbalch, A. L.; Heitmann, B. L.; Kyvik, K. O.; Sørensen, T. I. A. (2010). "Associations between dietary intake and body fat independent of genetic and familial environmental background". International Journal of Obesity 34 (5): 892–898. doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.1. PMID 20125102. 
  82. ↑ Song, Y.; Park, M. J.; Paik, H. -Y.; Joung, H. (2009). "Secular trends in dietary patterns and obesity-related risk factors in Korean adolescents aged 10–19 years". International Journal of Obesity 34 (1): 48–56. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.203. PMID 19823182. 
  83. ↑ Paradis, A. -M.; Godin, G.; Pérusse, L.; Vohl, M. -C. (2009). "Associations between dietary patterns and obesity phenotypes". International Journal of Obesity 33 (12): 1419–1426. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.179. PMID 19736556. 
  84. ↑ Pattison, D. J. et al. “Dietary risk factors for the development of inflammatory polyarthritis: evidence for a role of high level of red meat consumption.” Arthritis & Rheumatism 50.12 (2004): 3804–3812.
  85. ↑ "Real Men Eat Meat". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16. 

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Fish and
seafood
Cuts and
preparation
Related
Subjects

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