Proto-Indo-European particles
The particles of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. The following article lists and discusses their hypothesized forms.
Adverbs
Adverbs used as adpositions
Many particles could be used both as adverbs and postpositions. This is similar to modern languages; compare English He is above in the attic (adverb) and The bird is above the house (preposition). The postpositions became prepositions in the daughter languages except Anatolian, Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Sabellic; Latin and Greek preserve postpositions vestigially.[1]
Reflexes, or descendants of the PIE reconstructed forms in its daughter languages, include the following.
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| *h₂epo / h₂po / apo | from | Ved. ápa "away, forth", Gk. apó, Lat. ab "from", Alb. pa "without", Eng. of, off[2] |
| *h₂ed | to, by, at | Lat. ad, Osc. adpúd, Umb. ař, Goth. at, ON at, Eng. æt/at, Gm. az/--, Ir. ad/do, Welsh add-, at, Gaul. ad, Phryg. addaket, XMK addai[3] |
| *h₂eti | from, back, again | OCS OCS отъ Ir. aith-, Welsh ad- "re-", Toch. A atas, Toch. B ate "away", Gk. atar "however" |
| *h₂en / *h₂enh₃ / *h₂neh₃ | on, upon | Av. ana, Gk. ano, Lat. in (in some cases), ON á, Goth. ana, Eng. an/on, Gm. ?/an, Lith. ant[citation needed] |
| *h₂enti | against, at the end, in front of, before | Gk. anti, Lat. ante, Hitt. hantezzi "first" |
| *h₂eu | off, away, too much, very | Ved. ava, Lith. nuo, Eng. of, off[3] |
| *h₂n̥-bʰi / *h₂m̥-bʰi | around[4] (→ both) | Ved. abhi, Av. aiwito, aibi, Pers. abiy/?, Gk. amphi, ON um, Eng. bi/by; ymbi/umbe (obsolete), Gm. umbi/um; ?/bei, Gaul. ambi, Ir. imb/um, Welsh am, Toch. āmpi/?, Alb. mbi, Lith. abu, OCS oba, Russ. ob "about", oba "both"[3] |
| *bʰeǵʰ | without | OCS без, OPruss. bhe, Ved. bahis "from outwards"[3] |
| *de, *do | to | Gk. -de, Eng. to, Gm. zu, Lith. da-, OCS do, PER tâ, Welsh i, Ir. do |
| *h₁eǵʰs | out | Lat. ex, Gk. ἐκ (ek)/ἐξ (eks), Gaul. ex-, Ir. ass/as; acht/; echtar, Russ. из (iz), Alb. jashtë, Oscan eh-, Umbrian ehe-, Lith. iš, Ltv. iz, OPruss. is, Welsh ech-[3] |
| *h₁eǵʰs-tos | outside | Gk. ektos[3] |
| *h₁eǵʰs-tro- / *h₁eǵʰs-ter | extra | Lat. extra,[3] Welsh eithr "except, besides" |
| *h₁en | in | Gk. en, Lat. in, Eng. in/in, Gm. in/in, īn/ein-, Ir. i, Welsh yn, Arm. i, Alb. në, OPruss. en, OCS vŭ(n)-,[2]
Luw. anda, Carian nt_a, Goth. in, ON í, Ir. in/i, Lith. į, Ltv. iekšā[citation needed] |
| *h₁en-ter | within, inside | Ved. antár "between", Lat. inter "between, among", Gm. untar/unter "between, among" (see also *n̥dʰ-er below), Ir. eter/idir "between", Cornish ynter, Alb. ndër "between, in",[2] Pers. ændær "inside", SCr. unutar "within" |
| *h₁eti | beyond, over (about quantity), besides | Lat. et, etiam, Gk. ἔτι, οὐκέτι, Ved. अति (ati), Av. aiti, OPruss. et-, at- , Eng. ed-, edgrow, Gaul. eti, t-ic |
| *h₁opi / h₁epi | near, at, upon, by | Ved. ápi "by, on", Gk. epí "on", Lat. ob "on", Arm. ew "and",[2] |
| *h₁neu | without | Khot. anau "without" Osset. aenae Gk. aneu |
| *km̥-th₂ / *km̥-ti | by, along | Hitt. katta "with", Gaul. kanta "with", Gk. katá "down"[2][3] Welsh gan |
| *kom | with | Lat. cum, Ir. co/?,[2] Welsh cyf- |
| *medʰi | in the middle | Pers., miyan Av. madiiana, Khot. mayana-, Ved. madhyama Lat. medius OPruss. median Goth. miduma "the middle" OCS meždu,[3] Welsh y mewn |
| *n̥dʰ-eri | under | Ved. adhás, Av. aδairi, Lat. īnfr-ā, Eng. under/under, Arm. ənd,[2]
Pers. ?/zēr, ON und, Goth. undar, Gm. untar/unter, Arm. ĕndhup/ĕnthub[citation needed] |
| *ni | down, under | Ved. ní, Eng. ne-ther, Arm. ni, OCS ni-zŭ[2] |
| *nu | now | Hitt. nu, Luw. nanun, Ved. nū, OPers. nūra/?, Pers. æknun/konun/?, Gk. nun, Lat. nunc, ON nū, Goth. nu, Eng. nū/now, Gm. nu/nun, Toch. nuṃ/nano, Lith. nū, Ltv. nu, OPruss. teinu, OCS nu, Alb. tani, Arb. naní[citation needed] (but see the list of conjunctions below) |
| *h₃ebʰi, h₃bʰi | towards, into, at | OCS объ[3] |
| *pe | with, together | Hitt. pe-[citation needed] |
| *per(i) | around, through | Ved. pári "around, forth", Gk. perí "around", Lat. per "through", OPruss. per, Alb. për,[2] Russ. pere- "through, over" |
| *per / *pero / *prō | before, forth, in front of, ahead of | Hitt. per, Ved. prā, Lat. per, prō, Eng. for/fore-, Gm. ?/vor, Welsh rhy, rhag, er, Lith. per, pro[citation needed], Alb. para, Pers. pær-/pæri-/par-, Russ. pered |
| *pos | after | Ved. pascat, Lat. post, Lith. paskui[5] |
| *r̥ / *rō / *rō-dʰi | for (enclitic), for the purpose of | Ved. r̥[citation needed] OCS ради |
| *trh₂os | through | Ved. tiras, Lat. trāns, Eng. through, OIr. tar,[5] Welsh tra |
| *uper | above | Ved. upári, Gk. hupér, Lat. s-uper, Eng. over, Ir. for/fara, Welsh gor-, gwar- Arm. (i) ver "up"[2]
Alb. sipër |
| *up / *upo | under, below | Ved. úpa "up to", Gk. hupó "below", Lat. s-ub, Ir. fo/faoi,[2] Welsh go-, gwa-
Hitt. upzi, Av. upa, Pers. upa/?, Umb. sub, Osc. sup, ON upp, Goth. iup, Eng. upp/up, Gm. uf/auf, Welsh go, Gaul. voretus, Toch. ?/spe, Lith. po[citation needed] |
Untranslated reflexes have the same meaning as the PIE word.
In the following languages, two reflexes separated by a slash mean:
- English: Old English / Modern English
- German: Old High German / New High German
- Irish: Old Irish / Modern Irish
- Persian: Old Persian / Modern Persian
- Tocharian: Tocharian A / Tocharian B
Negators
Two negators can be reconstructed, *ne and *mē, the latter only used for negative commands. The so-called privative prefix *n̥- is likely the zero grade of *ne.
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| *ne | sentence negator | Ved. ná, Lat. nē/ne-, Eng. ne/no, Gm. ne/nein, Lith. nè, OCS ne,[6]
Hitt. natta, Luw. ni-, Lyc. ni-, Lyd. ni-, Av. na, Pers. na/?, Gk. ne-, Osc. ne, Umb. an-, ON né, Goth. ni, Ir. ní/ní, Welsh ni, Arm. an-, Toch. an-/en-, Ltv. ne, OPruss. ne, Pol. nie, Russ. ne, net, Alb. nuk[citation needed] |
| *n̥- | privative prefix | Hitt. am-, Ved. a(n)-, Gk. a(n)-, Lat. in-, Alb. e-, Eng. un-,[6] Gm. un- |
| *mā | negator for commands | Ved. mā, Per ma-, Gk. mē (Doric mā)[6]
Alb. mos |
Adverbs derived from adjectives
Adverbs derived from adjectives (like English bold-ly, beautiful-ly) arguably cannot be classified as particles. In Proto-Indo-European, these are simply case forms of adjectives and thus better classified as nouns. An example is *meǵh₂ "greatly", a nominative-accusative singular.[7]
Conjunctions
The following conjunctions can be reconstructed:[8]
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| *kʷe | and, word or phrase connector† | Hitt. -ku, Ved. ca, Av. ca, Gk. te, Lat. -que, Celtib. kue, Per ke |
| *wē | or, word or phrase disjunctor† | Ved. vā, Gk. -(w)ē, Lat. -ve |
| *de | and, sentence connector | Gk. dé, Alb. dhe, Russ. da "and" |
| *nu | and, sentence connector | Hitt. nu, Ved. nú, Gk. nú, Toch. ?/nu, Ir. no-/?, OCS nŭ (but see the adverbs above) |
†Placed after the joined word, as in Latin Senatus populus-que Romanus ("Senate and people of Rome"), -que joining senatus and populus.
Interjections
There is only one PIE interjection which can be securely reconstructed, the second is tentative:[8]
| Particle | Meaning | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| *wai! | expression of woe or agony | Hitt. uwai, Lat. vae, Welsh gwae, Breton gwa, Eng. woe, ON. vei,[9] Pers. vai, Kurd. wai, Ved. uvē, Gk. aī, aī aī (woe!, alas!), Ltv. ai, vai |
| *ō! / *eh₃! (?) | oh! | Gk. ō,[10] Lat. ō,[11] Eng. oh!, Gm. oh!, Russ. o!,[12] Pers. e! |
Notes
- ↑ Fortson (2004:133–4)
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 Fortson (2004:134)
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 Blažek : Indo-European Prepositions and Related Words (2005)
- ↑ Fortson (2004:239)
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Beekes
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Fortson (2004:133)
- ↑ Fortson (2004:132–3)
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Fortson (2004:134–5)
- ↑ Geir T. Zoëga (1910). "A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic".
- ↑ Schäfer & Zimmermann (1990:457)
- ↑ Petschenig (1994:339)
- ↑ Schenk (1998:)
References
- Fortson, Benjamin W., IV (2004), Indo-European Language and Culture, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 1-4051-0316-7
- Petschenig, M (1994), Der kleine Stowasser (in German), Vienna: Oldenbourg Schulbuchverlag, ISBN 3-486-13405-1
- Schäfer, K-H; Zimmermann, B (1990), Taschenwörterbuch Altgriechisch (in German) (3 ed.), Munich: Langenscheidt, ISBN 3-468-10031-0
- Schenk, W (1998), Handwörterbuch Russisch (in German), Munich: Langenscheidt, ISBN 3-468-07291-0
- Blažek, Václav (2005), Indo-European Prepositions and Related Words, ISSN 1801-5336
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