Phillip E. Johnson

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Phillip E. Johnson
Born (1940-06-18) June 18, 1940
Aurora, Illinois
Occupation Law professor (retired)
Known for Intelligent design

Phillip E. Johnson (born June 18, 1940) is a retired UC Berkeley law professor and author. He became a born-again Christian while a tenured professor and is considered the father of the intelligent design movement. A critic of what he calls "Darwinism" and "scientific materialism," Johnson rejects evolution in favor of neo-creationist views known as intelligent design (ID). He was a co-founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture (CSC) and is credited with establishing the wedge strategy, which aims to change public opinion and scientific consensus, and seeks to convince the scientific community to allow a role for God in scientific theory.[1] As a member of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis, a prominent AIDS denialist group,[2] Johnson has argued that HIV does not cause AIDS.[3][4][5][6] The scientific community considers Johnson's opinions on evolution and AIDS to be pseudoscience.[5][7][8][9]

Biography

Johnson was born in Aurora, Illinois, in 1940. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature, from Harvard University in 1961. He studied law at the University of Chicago, graduating top of his class, and received a Juris Doctor in law in 1965.[10][11] He served as a law clerk for the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Earl Warren and Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court Roger J. Traynor. Johnson became a member of the California Bar in January 1966.[12] He is an emeritus professor of law at Boalt School of Law at the University of California, Berkeley, where he served on the active faculty from 1967 to 2000. Johnson has served as deputy district attorney and has held visiting professorships at Emory University and at University College London.[11]

Johnson became a born-again Christian following a divorce,[13] and later became an elder in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).[14] Johnson recounts that on sabbatical in England he sought, through prayer, inspiration for what he should do with the rest of his life, and then received an epiphany after he read Richard Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker (1986) and Michael Denton's Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1985). Johnson later said, "Something about the Darwinists' rhetorical style, made me think they had something to hide."[15] Despite having no formal background in biology, he felt that could add insight into the premises and arguments: "I approach the creation-evolution dispute not as a scientist but as a professor of law, which means among other things that I know something about the ways that words are used in arguments."[16] Since the publication of the first edition of Darwin on Trial in 1991, he has become a prominent critic of evolutionary theory.[13]

Johnson popularized the term "intelligent design" in his book, Darwin on Trial. He remains one of the best known advocates for intelligent design, and is considered the founder of the intelligent design movement. He is a critic of methodological naturalism, the basic principle of science that restricts it to the investigation of natural causes for observable phenomena, and espouses a philosophy he has coined "theistic realism."[17] He is the author of several books on intelligent design, science, philosophy, and religion, as well as textbooks on criminal law. He has appeared on various programs such as PBS's Firing Line[18] and a Nova episode, "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial."

Since 2001, Johnson has suffered a series of minor right brain strokes. His rehabilitations have limited his public activities and participation in the debate on intelligent design, because of both their physical effects and Johnson's belief that they were signs from God urging him to spend more time with his faith and family and less in prideful debate.[19] In 2004, he was awarded the inaugural "Phillip E. Johnson Award for Liberty and Truth" by Biola University, a private evangelical Christian college noted for its promotion of intelligent design.[20] Johnson has two children and lives with his wife in Berkeley, California.

In 2006, Nancey Murphy, a religious scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary, stated she faced a campaign to get her fired after she expressed her view that intelligent design was not only poor theology, but "so stupid, I don't want to give them my time." Murphy, who accepts the validity of evolution, said that Johnson called a trustee in an attempt to get her fired and stated "His tactic has always been to fight dirty when anyone attacks his ideas." Johnson admits calling the trustee, but denies any responsibility for action taken against her. He said: "It's the Darwinists who hold the power in academia and who threaten the professional status and livelihoods of anyone who disagrees... They feel to teach anything but their orthodoxy is an act of professional treason."[21] Murphy had previously criticized Johnson's book Darwin on Trial for being "dogmatic and unconvincing," primarily because "he does not adequately understand scientific reasoning."[22]

During the 1990s, Johnson engaged in AIDS denialism, challenging the scientific consensus by claiming that HIV tests do not detect HIV,[2] AIDS statistics are grossly exaggerated[23] and that HIV is not the cause of AIDS.[24][25][26][27][28] He wrote several articles about the subject, including a piece in Reason magazine.[3] He was one of the 12 founding members of The Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis and signatory to the group's letter to the editor of Science asserting that HIV is only tautologically associated with AIDS and that HIV tests are inaccurate.[2]

Johnson has stated in an interview that he believed "the strength of America is not in its towers or in its battleships, it's in its faith. Of course, I said that, but I wasn't sure it was really true anymore. This isn't the same country we were in the previous decades." Johnson said the U.S. was "cringing in fear" of Muslim terrorists after September 11 attacks and that professors were afraid to discuss it "because they're afraid of what the Muslim students will do. They're afraid it won't keep the peace on campus. I never thought our country would descend to this level. We are afraid to search the truth and to proclaim it. We once knew who the true God was and were able to proclaim it frankly. But since about 1960 we've been hiding from that. We've been trying to pretend that all religions are the same."[29]

Intelligent design

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Johnson is best known as one of the founders of the intelligent design movement, principal architect of the wedge strategy, author of the Santorum Amendment, and one of the ID movement's most prolific authors. Johnson is co-founder and program advisor of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Johnson has advocated strongly in the public and political spheres for the teaching of intelligent design as preferable to the teaching of evolution, which Johnson characterizes as "atheistic" and "falsified by all of the evidence" and whose "logic is terrible." In portraying the philosophy of science, and by extension its theories such as evolution as atheistic, Johnson argues that a more valid alternative is "theistic realism." Theistic realism asserts that science, by relying upon methodological naturalism, demands an a priori adoption of a naturalistic philosophy that wrongly dismisses out of hand any explanation that contains a supernatural cause.

Johnson rejects common descent and does not take a position on the age of the Earth.[30][31] These concepts are a common theme in his books, including Darwin on Trial, Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education (1995), Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds (1997), and The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism (2000). Eugenie Scott wrote that Darwin on Trial "teaches little that is accurate about either the nature of science, or the topic of evolution. It is recommended neither by scientists nor educators."[32] Working through the Center for Science and Culture Johnson wrote the early draft language of the Santorum Amendment, which encouraged a "Teach the Controversy" approach to evolution in public school education.[33]

Nancy Pearcey, a Center for Science and Culture fellow and Johnson associate, credits Johnson's leadership of the intelligent design movement in two of her most recent publications. In an interview with Johnson for World magazine, Pearcey says, "It is not only in politics that leaders forge movements. Phillip Johnson has developed what is called the 'Intelligent Design' movement..."[34] In Christianity Today, she reveals Johnson's religious beliefs and his criticism of evolution and affirms Johnson as "The unofficial spokesman for ID"[35] The scientific community views intelligent design as unscientific, pseudoscience and junk science.[7][8][9][36][37][38][39]

Wedge strategy

See also: Wedge strategy

In its earliest days the intelligent design movement was called the 'wedge movement'. The wedge metaphor, attributed to Johnson, is that of a metal wedge splitting a log and represents using an aggressive public relations programme to create an opening for the supernatural in the public’s understanding of science.[40] Johnson acknowledges that the goal of the intelligent design movement is to promote a theistic agenda as a scientific concept.[41][42][43]

According to Johnson, the wedge movement, if not the term, began in 1992:

The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at Southern Methodist University in March 1992, following the publication of my book Darwin on Trial. The conference brought together as speakers some key Wedge figures, particularly Michael Behe, Stephen Meyer, William Dembski, and myself.[44]

Johnson describes the wedge movement as devoted to a "program of questioning the materialistic basis of science" and reclaiming the "intellectual world" from the "atheists and agnostics" that Johnson believes are synonymous with this "scientific materialist culture." He describes the "logic of our movement" as:[45]

  • "The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence, and the logic is terrible."
  • "...the next question that occurs to you is, 'Well, where might you get truth?' ...I start with John 1:1, 'In the beginning was the Word.' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right and the materialist scientists are deluding themselves."
  • "The next question is: Why do so many brilliant, well-informed, intelligent people fool themselves for so long with such bad thinking and bad evidence?" Johnson sees this as an issue of "turning away from" self-evident truth, the "sin question" and the need to prepare the way for acceptance of a Creator.

Johnson has been explicit about the Christian principles underlying his philosophy and agenda and that of the intelligent design movement. In speaking at the 1999 "Reclaiming America for Christ Conference," Johnson has described the movement thus:

I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call "The Wedge," which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science.

[...]

Now, the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence, and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, "Well, where might you get truth?" ...I start with John 1:1, "In the beginning was the Word." In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right and the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.

[...]

In summary, we have to educate our young people; we have to give them the armor they need. We have to think about how we're going on the offensive rather than staying on the defensive. And above all, we have to come out to the culture with the view that we are the ones who really stand for freedom of thought. You see, we don't have to fear freedom of thought because good thinking done in the right way will eventually lead back to the Church, to the truth-the truth that sets people free, even if it goes through a couple of detours on the way. And so we're the ones that stand for good science, objective reasoning, assumptions on the table, a high level of education, and freedom of conscience to think as we are capable of thinking. That's what America stands for, and that's something we stand for, and that's something the Christian Church and the Christian Gospel stand for-the truth that makes you free. Let's recapture that, while we're recapturing America.

— Johnson, How The Evolution Debate Can Be Won[45]

Rob Boston of Americans United for Separation of Church and State described this vision as:

The objective [of the wedge strategy] is to convince people that Darwinism is inherently atheistic, thus shifting the debate from creationism vs. evolution to the existence of God vs. the non-existence of God. From there people are introduced to 'the truth' of the Bible and then 'the question of sin' and finally 'introduced to Jesus.'[46]

Johnson is one of the authors of the Discovery Institute's Wedge Document and its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, which attempts to cast doubt on the validity of the theory of evolution, its acceptance within the scientific community, and reduce its role in public school science curricula while promoting intelligent design. The "Teach the Controversy" campaign portrays evolution as "a theory in crisis."

In his 1997 book Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds Johnson summed up the underlying philosophy of his advocacy for intelligent design and against methodological and philosophical naturalism:

If we understand our own times, we will know that we should affirm the reality of God by challenging the domination of materialism and naturalism in the world of the mind. With the assistance of many friends I have developed a strategy for doing this,...We call our strategy the "wedge".[1]

Johnson has described the wedge strategy as:

  • "We are taking an intuition most people have [the belief in God] and making it a scientific and academic enterprise. We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator."[47]
  • "Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools."[41]
  • "This isn't really, and never has been, a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy."[42]
  • "So the question is: 'How to win?' That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the 'wedge' strategy: 'Stick with the most important thing' —the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, 'Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?' and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."[14]

When asked how best to raise doubts and question evolution with non-believers, Johnson responded:

What I am not doing is bringing the Bible into the university and saying, "We should believe this." Bringing the Bible into question works very well when you are talking to a Bible-believing audience. But it is a disastrous thing to do when you are talking, as I am constantly, to a world of people for whom the fact that something is in the Bible is a reason for not believing it.

You see, if they thought they had good evidence for something, and then they saw it in the Bible, they would begin to doubt. That is what has to be kept out of the argument if you are going to do what I to do, which is to focus on the defects in their [the evolutionist's] case—the bad logic, the bad science, the bad reasoning, and the bad evidence.[48]

Criticism

Johnson has been accused of being intellectually dishonest in his arguments advancing intelligent design and attacking the scientific community.[49][50] Johnson has employed numerous equivocations regarding the term "naturalism," failing to distinguish between methodological naturalism (in which science is used to study the natural world and says nothing about the supernatural) versus philosophical naturalism (the philosophical belief that nothing exists but the natural world, and adopts as a premise the idea that there is no supernatural world or deities).[51][52] In fact-checking Johnson's books Darwin on Trial and Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds, one reviewer argued that almost every scientific source Johnson cited had been misused or distorted, from simple misinterpretations and innuendos to outright fabrications. The reviewer, Brian Spitzer, an associate professor of biology at the University of Redlands, described Darwin on Trial as the most deceptive book he had ever read.[50]

Since Johnson is considered by those both inside and outside the movement to be the father and architect of the intelligent design movement and its strategies,[53] his statements are often used to validate the criticisms leveled by those who allege that the Discovery Institute and its allied organizations are merely stripping the obvious religious content from their anti-evolution assertions as a means of avoiding the legal restrictions of the Establishment Clause, a view reinforced by the December 2005 ruling in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial which found that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. They argue that ID is an attempt to put a patina of secularity on top of what is a fundamentally religious belief and thus that the "Teach the Controversy" exhortation is disingenuous, particularly when contrasted to his statements in The Wall Street Journal and other secular media. Critics point out that contrary to the Discovery Institute's and Johnson's claims, the theory of evolution is well-supported and accepted within the scientific community, with debates regarding how evolution occurred, not if it occurred. Popular disagreement with evolutionary theory should not be considered as a reason for challenging it as a scientifically valid subject to be taught, they contend.

Critics of Johnson point to his central role in the Discovery Institute's carefully orchestrated campaign known as the wedge strategy. The wedge strategy, as envisioned by the Discovery Institute, is designed to leave the science establishment looking close-minded in the short term with a long-term goal being a redefinition of science that centers on the removal of methodological naturalism from the philosophy of science and the scientific method, thereby allowing for supernatural explanations to be introduced as science. Critics note that Johnson, as a principal officer of the Discovery Institute, often cites an overall plan to put the United States on a course toward the theocracy envisioned in the wedge strategy, and that the Discovery Institute as a matter of policy intentionally obfuscates its agenda. According to Johnson, "The movement we now call the wedge made its public debut at a conference of scientists and philosophers held at Southern Methodist University in March 1992."[44]

Bibliography

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  • —— (1975). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context. American Casebook Series. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. LCCN 75005083. OCLC 1529179. 
  • —— (1976). 1976 Supplement to Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context. American Casebook Series. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. LCCN 77354635. OCLC 2607013. 
  • —— (1977). 1977 Supplement to Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context. American Casebook Series. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. LCCN 77154398. OCLC 3670876. 
  • —— (1980). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text on the Substantive Criminal Law in its Procedural Context. American Casebook Series. With problems by the author and Myron Moskovitz (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8299-2093-5. LCCN 80014283. OCLC 22560980. 
  • —— (1985). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text. American Casebook Series. With problems by the author and Myron Moskovitz (3nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-3148-9682-1. LCCN 85005079. OCLC 12120243. 
  • —— (1988). Goldenberg, Norman S., ed. Casenote Legal Briefs. Criminal Law: Adaptable to Courses Utilizing Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law. Staff writers, Richard A. Lovich, Kemp Richardson. Beverly Hills, CA: Casenotes Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8745-7093-X. LCCN 89117347. OCLC 20391227. 
  • —— (1988). Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure. American Casebook Series. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-3146-0025-6. LCCN 87025297. OCLC 16684338. 
  • —— (1990). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text. American Casebook Series (4th ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-3147-2635-7. LCCN 90035247. OCLC 21375540. 
  • —— (1990). Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism. Dallas, TX: Haughton Pub. Co. LCCN 00268240. OCLC 27190651. 
  • —— (1991). Goldenberg, Norman S.; Tenen, Peter; Switzer, Robert J., eds. Casenote Legal Briefs. Criminal Law: Adaptable to Courses Utilizing Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law. Staff writers, Richard A. Lovich, Kemp Richardson. Santa Monica, CA: Casenotes Pub. Co. ISBN 0-87457-156-1. LCCN 92124154. OCLC 26128520. 
  • —— (1991). Darwin on Trial. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway. ISBN 0-8952-6535-4. LCCN 90026218. OCLC 22906277. 
  • —— (1993). Darwin on Trial (2nd ed.). Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-1324-1. LCCN 93029217. OCLC 28889094. 
  • —— (1994). Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure. American Casebook Series (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-3140-3584-2. LCCN 94013551. OCLC 30156868. 
  • —— (1995). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text. American Casebook Series (5th ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. ISBN 0-3140-6410-9. LCCN 95022555. OCLC 32664822. 
  • —— (1995). Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-830-81610-0. LCCN 95012620. OCLC 32384818. 
  • —— (1997). Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-1360-8. LCCN 97012916. OCLC 36621960. 
  • —— (1998). Objections Sustained: Subversive Essays on Evolution, Law & Culture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-1941-X. LCCN 98006866. OCLC 38898010. 
  • —— (2000). Cases and Materials on Criminal Procedure. American Casebook Series (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Group. ISBN 0-3142-4119-1. LCCN 00702489. OCLC 44547056. 
  • —— (2000). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text. American Casebook Series (6th ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Group. ISBN 0-3142-4091-8. LCCN 00697867. OCLC 45223793. 
  • —— (2000). The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-2267-4. LCCN 00039586. OCLC 43903750. 
  • ——; Cloud, Morgan (2002). Criminal Law: Cases, Materials, and Text. American Casebook Series (7th ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Group. ISBN 0-3142-5649-0. LCCN 2003267475. OCLC 50390778. 
  • —— (2002). The Right Questions: Truth, Meaning & Public Debate. Foreword by Nancy Pearcey. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-8308-2294-1. LCCN 2002006756. OCLC 49773676. 
  • Arnold, Brian G.; Caves, Amy Melissa; Rose, Paul; Johnson, Phillip E. (2002). Blatt, Dana L., ed. West Group High Court Case Summaries. Criminal Law: Keyed to Johnson's Casebook on Criminal Law, 7th Edition. Eagan, MN: West Group. ISBN 0-3141-4529-X. LCCN 2003265465. OCLC 56517350. 
  • Johnson, Phillip E.; Cloud, Morgan (2005). Constitutional Criminal Procedure: From Investigation to Trial. American Casebook Series (4th ed.). St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West. ISBN 0-3142-5660-1. LCCN 2005282241. OCLC 61330436. 
  • ——; Reynolds, John Mark (2010). Against All Gods: What's Right and Wrong About the New Atheism. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-3738-0. LCCN 2010000182. OCLC 460060927. 
  • —— (2010) [Originally published 1991; Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway]. Darwin on Trial. New introduction by Michael Behe (20th anniversary ed., 3rd ed.). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. ISBN 978-0-830-83831-8. LCCN 2010019862. OCLC 615339705. 

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Johnson 1997, pp. 91–92
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Baumann, E.; Bethell, T.; Bialy, H.; Duesberg, P. H.; Farber, C.; Geshekter, C. L.; Johnson, P. E.; Maver, R. W.; Schoch, R.; Stewart, G. T. (1995). "AIDS proposal. Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis". Science 267 (5200): 945–946. Bibcode:1995Sci...267..945B. doi:10.1126/science.267.5200.945. PMID 7863335. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Thomas, Charles; Mullis, Karen; Johnson, Phillip (June 1994). "What causes AIDS?". Reason (Los Angeles, CA: Reason Foundation). ISSN 0048-6906. Retrieved 2013-12-26. .
  4. ↑ Young, Craig (July 1, 2009). "AIDS Denialism: A South African Tragedy". GayNZ.com (Auckland, NZ: J&N Infolink Ltd). Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Shallit, Jeffrey (August 9, 2000). "AIDS conference proves pseudoscience can kill you". Waterloo Region Record (Ontario, Canada: Metroland Media Group). ISSN 0824-5150. 
  6. ↑ "The Group". VirusMyth: A Rethinking AID$ Website. Hilversum, Netherlands: Robert Laarhoven. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Mu, David (Fall 2005). "Trojan Horse or Legitimate Science: Deconstructing the Debate over Intelligent Design" (PDF). Harvard Science Review (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Science Review, Inc.) 19 (1): 22–25. Retrieved 2013-12-26. "...for most members of the mainstream scientific community, ID is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience." 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Workosky, Cindy (August 3, 2005). "National Science Teachers Association Disappointed About Intelligent Design Comments Made by President Bush" (Press release). Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association. Retrieved 2013-12-26. "'We stand with the nation's leading scientific organizations and scientists, including Dr. John Marburger, the president's top science advisor, in stating that intelligent design is not science.' ... 'It is simply not fair to present pseudoscience to students in the science classroom.'" 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Attie, Alan D.; Sober, Elliott; Numbers, Ronald L.; Amasino, Richard M.; Cox, Beth; Berceau, Terese; Powell, Thomas; Cox, Michael M. (May 1, 2006). "Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action". Journal of Clinical Investigation (Ann Arbor, MI: American Society for Clinical Investigation) 116 (5): 1134–1138. doi:10.1172/JCI28449. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 1451210. PMID 16670753. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  10. ↑ "Meet Phillip Johnson". Christianbook.com. Peabody, MA: Christianbook.com, LLC. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Berkeley Law - Faculty Profiles". BerkeleyLaw. Berkeley, CA: UC Berkeley School of Law. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  12. ↑ "State Bar of CA :: Phillip E Johnson". The State Bar of California. San Francisco, CA. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Forrest 2001
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Johnson, Phillip E. (June 2002). Interview with James M. Kushiner. "Berkeley's Radical". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity (Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James) 15 (5). ISSN 0897-327X. http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-05-037-i. Retrieved 2013-12-26. Johnson interviewed in November 2000.
  15. ↑ Dembski 2006
  16. ↑ Johnson 2010, pp. 25–26
  17. ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (May/June 1996). "Third-Party Science". Books & Culture (Book review) 2 (3). Retrieved 2013-12-26.  Article reprinted in full by Access Research Network here.
  18. ↑ "A Firing Line Debate: Resolved: That the Evolutionists Should Acknowledge Creation". Firing Line (Debate special). Episode 203. December 19, 1997. PBS. http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline/programView2.php?programID=397. Retrieved 2013-12-26. Video on YouTube.
  19. ↑ Condon, Kevin (September 1, 2004). "The Right Questions". Denver Journal: An Online Review of Current Biblical and Theological Studies (Book review) (Littleton, CO: Denver Seminary) 7. OCLC 54379462. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  20. ↑ "Antony Flew Receives Award From Intelligent Design Community". Biola University. La Mirada, CA: Biola University, Inc. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  21. ↑ Vedantam, Shankar (February 5, 2006). "Eden and Evolution". The Washington Post. p. W08. Retrieved 2008-05-17. 
  22. ↑ Murphy 2001, p. 451
  23. ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. (October 2004). "Overestimating AIDS". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity (Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James) 17 (8). ISSN 0897-327X. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  24. ↑ Epstein 1996
  25. ↑ "HIV & AIDS - Phillip Johnson". VirusMyth: A Rethinking AID$ Website (Index of articles). Hilversum, Netherlands: Robert Laarhoven. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  26. ↑ Quittman, Beth (September 8, 2006). "Undercover at the Discovery Institute". Seattlest (Blog) (New York: Gothamist LLC). Retrieved 2008-07-17. 
  27. ↑ "Aids 'denialism' gathers strange bedfellows". The Vancouver Sun (Vancouver, BC: Postmedia Network). June 17, 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-17. 
  28. ↑ Brauer, Matthew J.; Forrest, Barbara; Gey, Steven G. (2005). "Is It Science Yet?: Intelligent Design Creationism and the Constitution" (PDF). Washington University Law Review (St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Law) 83 (1): 79–80. ISSN 2166-7993. Retrieved 2010-07-30. 
  29. ↑ Staub, Dick (December 1, 2002). "The Dick Staub Interview: Phillip Johnson". Christianity Today (Carol Stream, IL: Christianity Today International). ISSN 0009-5753. Retrieved 2010-07-30. 
  30. ↑ Powell, Michael (May 15, 2005). "Doubting Rationalist". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  31. ↑ Olasky (January 27, 2004). "Creationists and Intelligent Design". World Magazine Blog. Asheville, NC: God's World Publications. ISSN 0888-157X. Archived from the original on 2004-11-14. 
  32. ↑ Scott, Eugenie C.; Sager, Thomas C. (Winter 1992). "Review Article: Darwin on Trial, by Phillip Johnson". Creation/Evolution (Berkeley, CA: National Center for Science Education) 12 (31): 47–56. Retrieved 2008-07-27. 
  33. ↑ Larson, Edward J. (March 29, 2006). "Biology Wars: The Religion, Science and Education Controversy" (PDF). Religion & Public Life Project. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2013-12-26. "That language, which was penned by Phil Johnson for Rick Santorum, passed the Senate as an amendment to the No Child Left Behind education bill, and eventually became part of the conference report for that legislation." 
  34. ↑ Pearcey, Nancy R. (July 29, 2000). "Wedge Issues". World (Asheville, NC: God's World Publications) 15 (29). ISSN 0888-157X. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  35. ↑ Pearcey, Nancy R. (May 22, 2000). "We're Not in Kansas Anymore". Christianity Today (Reprint) (Carol Stream, IL: Christianity Today International). ISSN 0009-5753. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  36. ↑ See: 1) List of scientific societies explicitly rejecting intelligent design 2) Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83. 3) The Discovery Institute's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism petition begun in 2001 has been signed by "over 600 scientists" as of August 20, 2006. 4) A four day A Scientific Support for Darwinism petition gained 7,733 signatories from scientists opposing ID. 5) The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and firmly rejects ID. 6) More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes. 7) List of statements from scientific professional organizations on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
  37. ↑ Orr, H. Allen (May 30, 2005). "Devolution". The New Yorker (Condé Nast). Retrieved 2013-12-26. "Biologists aren't alarmed by intelligent design’s arrival in Dover and elsewhere because they have all sworn allegiance to atheistic materialism; they're alarmed because intelligent design is junk science." 
  38. ↑ Pennock 1999
  39. ↑ Bergin, Mark (February 25, 2006). "Junk science". World (Asheville, NC: God's World Publications) 21 (8). ISSN 0888-157X. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  40. ↑ Forrest, Barbara (May 2007). "Understanding The Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals" (PDF). Center for Inquiry. Washington, D.C.: Center for Inquiry. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Nickson, Elizabeth (February 6, 2004). "Let's Be Intelligent about Darwin". National Post (Reprint) (Toronto, Ontario: Postmedia Network). ISSN 1486-8008. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Belz, Joel (November 30, 1996). "Witnesses for the prosecution". World (Reprint) (Asheville, NC: God's World Publications) 11 (28): 18. ISSN 0888-157X. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  43. ↑ Buell & Hearn 1994
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Johnson, Phillip E. (July/August 1999). "The Wedge: Breaking the Modernist Monopoly on Science". Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity (Chicago, IL: Fellowship of St. James) 12 (4). ISSN 0897-327X. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Johnson, Phillip E. "How The Evolution Debate Can Be Won". Coral Ridge Ministries. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Coral Ridge Ministries. Archived from the original on 2007-11-07. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  46. ↑ Boston, Rob (April 1999). "Missionary Man". Church & State (Washington, D.C.: Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State). ISSN 2163-3746. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  47. ↑ Watanabe, Teresa (March 25, 2001). "Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  48. ↑ Johnson, Phillip E. "How to Debate the Issue". The Kennedy Commentary. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Coral Ridge Ministries. Archived from the original on 2007-03-13. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  49. ↑ Pieret, John (February 16, 2004). "Another Dishonest Creationist Quote". TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Spitzer, Brian (August 4, 2002). "The Truth, the Whole Truth, and Nothing But the Truth?". Talk Reason. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  51. ↑ Isaak, Mark (September 24, 2002). "A Philosophical Premise of 'Naturalism'?". Talkdesign.org. Concord, CA: Wesley R. Elsberry. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  52. ↑ Scott, Eugenie C. (Winter 1993). "Darwin Prosecuted: Review of Johnson's Darwin on Trial". Creation/Evolution (Berkeley, CA: National Center for Science Education) 13 (33): 36–47. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 
  53. ↑ Stewart 2007, p. 2

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