Medicinal mushroom

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Lepista nuda

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms used in medicine or medical research.

History

Mushroom artwork by Chen Hongshou, Hiroshige II, and Lang Shining (left) Mesoamerican mushroom stones (right)
Ganoderma cultivation (left, Hokkaido) Cordyceps store (right, Lhasa)

Mushrooms, fermentation molds, mycelia, sclerotium, and lichens, have a history of medicinal use spanning millennia. The mushroom with the longest record of medicinal use Ganoderma lucidum, is known in Chinese as líng zhī ("spirit plant"), and in Japanese as mannentake ("10,000 year mushroom"). In ancient Japan, Grifola frondosa was worth its weight in silver.[1]

A Hadith states, "Truffles are manna which Allah sent to the people of Israel through Moses, and its juice is a medicine for the eyes."[2] Ötzi the Iceman was found carrying Fomes fomentarius and Piptoporus betulinus.[3] Inonotus obliquus was used in Russia as early as the 16th century, and it featured in Alexandr Solzhenitsyn's 1967 novel Cancer Ward.[4] Ancient Egyptians considered mushrooms food for royalty.

Fungi that do not produce mushrooms, have made large contributions to medicine being the source of immunosuppressants ciclosporin, mycophenolic acid, mizoribine, antibiotics penicillin, cephalosporins, fusafungine, usnic acid, fusidic acid, fumagillin, brefeldin A, verrucarin A, alamethicin, antifungals griseofulvin, echinocandins, strobilurin, azoxystrobin, caspofungin, micafungin, and statins lovastatin, mevastatin (pravastatin precursor), and monacolin J (simvastatin precursor).

Medical applications

Antimicrobial isolates and derivatives

Antibiotics retapamulin, tiamulin, and valnemulin are derivatives of the mushroom isolate pleuromutilin. Plectasin, coprinol, and sparassol, are antibiotics isolated from mushrooms. Researchers have isolated a number of antifungal, antiviral, and antiprotozoan, isolates from mushrooms.

Mushroom enzyme inhibitors

Mushroom Isolate/extract/metabolite Enzyme inhibited
Pleurotus ostreatus lovastatin HMG-CoA reductase
Hypholoma sublateritium clavaric acid farnesyltransferase
Polyozellus multiplex polyozellin, thelephoric acid, kynapcins prolyl endopeptidase
Lentinula edodes eritadenine S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine hydrolase
Coprinopsis atramentaria 1-aminocyclopropanol acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
Inonotus obliquus extract dipeptidyl peptidase-4
Grifola frondosa extract alpha glucosidase
Trametes versicolor extract alpha amylase
Pholiota squarrosa, Daedalea quercina extract (Pholiota squarrosa), quercinol (Daedalea quercina) xanthine oxidase
Phellinus linteus phellinstatin enoyl-ACP reductase
Phellinus linteus hispidin and hypholomine B neuraminidase
Various extract 5-alpha reductase
Various extract aromatase
Various peptides angiotensin-converting enzyme
Daedalea quercina quercinol cyclooxygenase 2
Daedalea quercina quercinol horseradish peroxidase

Anticancer research

Bristol-Myers Squibb manufactures paclitaxel using Penicillium raistrickii. In 2014, researchers reported creating a transgenic Flammulina velutipes that expresses the gene used to synthesize the paclitaxel precursor baccatin III.[5]

Some mushroom extracts and isolates have been researched for anticancer activity. As examples:

Some countries have approved mushroom extracts lentinan, polysaccharide-K, and polysaccharide peptide as immunologic adjuvants.[6] There is some evidence of this use having effectiveness in prolonging and improving the quality of life for patients with certain cancers, although the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center observes that "well designed, large scale studies are needed to establish the role of lentinan as a useful adjunct to cancer treatment".[7] According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no evidence that any type of mushroom or mushroom extract can prevent or cure cancer".[8][9]

Antidiabetic research

Many mushroom isolates act as DPP-4 inhibitors, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and alpha amylase inhibitors in vitro. Ternatin is a mushroom isolate that suppresses hyperglycemia.[10]

Psychotropic research

Psychotropic medicines created from ergot alkaloids include cafergot, dihydroergotamine, methysergide, methylergometrine, hydergine, nicergoline, lisuride, bromocriptine, cabergoline, pergolide. Polyozellus multiplex synthesizes prolyl endopeptidase inhibitors polyozellin, thelephoric acid, kynapcins, while Hericium erinaceus isolates erinacine and hericenone promote nerve growth factor synthesis and myelination in vitro. Neurotrophic mushroom isolates include the tricholomalides, scabronines, termitomycesphins, and theanine.

Many mushrooms synthesize the partial, non-selective, serotonin receptor agonist/analog psilocin.

Nutritional research

The photochemistry of Vitamin D biosynthesis

Mushrooms are the only food source of statins like lovastatin.[citation needed] Only fungi and animals can synthesize vitamin D. Mushrooms have been verified creating D2 (ergocalciferol), D4 (22-dihydroergocalciferol), and vitamin D1 (Lumisterol+D2).[11] Mushrooms are a rare source of ergothioneine,[12] contain ACE inhibitor peptides, and are a source of prebiotic dietary fiber. Mushrooms also contain a variety of chemicals like lovastatin, cordycepin, inotilone, quercinol, antcin B, antrodioxolanone, and benzocamphorin F having preliminary research evidence for anti-inflammatory activity.[citation needed]

Edible species

Agaricus bisporus (Portobello, cremini, white button, champignon)

Agaricus bisporus (left) Agaricus subrufescens (center) Agrocybe aegerita (right)

Agaricus bisporus extracts have immunomodulatory activities in vivo,[13][14] and activity against several cancer cell lines.[15]

Agaricus subrufescens (Agaricus blazei/brasiliensis, almond mushroom)

Agaricus subrufescens is a medicinal mushroom associated with Brazil and Japan.[16][17] Research and small clinical studies demonstrated Agaricus subrufescens extracts have antihyperglycemic and anticancer activities.[18][19][20][21] Brefeldin A and blazein were isolated from Agaricus subrufescens.

Agrocybe aegerita (Pioppino, chestnut mushroom)

An Agrocybe aegerita extract demonstrated anticancer and immunomodulatory activities in vivo.[22]

Auricularia auricula (Wood ear, kikurage)

'
Auricularia auricula (left) Auricularia polytricha (right)

Auricularia auricula extracts have antihyperglycemic in vivo, and anticancer, anticoagulant, and anticholesterol activities in vitro.[23][24]

Auricularia polytricha (Cloud ear)

An Auricularia polytricha isolate inhibited sarcoma in vivo.[25]

Boletus badius

Theanine can be derived from this mushroom.[26]

Boletus edulis (Porcini, cep, borovik, steinpilz)

Boletus edulis (left) Coprinus comatus (center) Cordyceps attached to a caterpillar (right)

A lectin isolated from the mycorrhizal mushroom Boletus edulis has anticancer activity.[27]

Coprinus comatus (Ink cap)

A Coprinus comatus extract inhibited adenocarcinoma in vitro.[28]

Cordyceps sinensis (Caterpillar fungus, yartsa gunbu, dong chong xia cao)

Cordyceps sinensis is an entomopathogenic mushroom collected on the Tibetan Plateau. The immunosuppressant ciclosporin was originally isolated from Cordyceps subsessilis. The adenosine analog cordycepin was originally isolated from Cordyceps. Other Cordyceps isolates include, cordymin, cordycepsidone, and cordyheptapeptide.[29] CS-4 is a commercial strain of Cordyceps sinensis.

Flammulina velutipes (Enokitake)

Flammulina velutipes (left) cultivated Flammulina velutipes (right)

Animal testing of Flammulina velutipes has indicated possible applications in the development of vaccines and cancer immunotherapy.

Grifola frondosa (Maitake)

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Grifola frondosa (left) Hypsizygus tessellatus (center) Lentinula edodes (right)

Grifola frondosa studies indicate potential anticancer and antihyperglycemic activities. D-fraction, MD-fraction, SX-fraction, and grifolan, are researched isolates of Grifola frondosa.

Hypsizygus tessellatus (Hypsizygus marmoreus, shimeji)

Studies have isolated antiatherosclerotic, antifungal, and immunomodulatory compounds from Hypsizygus tessellatus.

Lentinula edodes (Shiitake)

Lentinan, AHCC, and eritadenine, are isolates of Lentinula edodes. In 1985 Japan approved lentinan as an adjuvant for gastric cancer. Studies there indicate prolonged survival and improved quality of life when gastric cancer patients with unresectable or recurrent diseases are treated with lentinan in combination with other chemotherapies. [6]

Lignosus rhinocerus (Tiger milk mushroom)

Lignosus rhinocerus is a medicinal mushroom associated with Malaysia.[30]

Morchella esculenta (Morel)

'
Morchella esculenta (left) Phallus indusiatus (right)

A Morchella esculenta isolate has immunomodulatory activity in vitro.[31]

Phallus impudicus

Phallus impudicus extracts have been clinically researched in relation to venous thrombosis.[32]

Phallus indusiatus (Dictyophora indusiata, bamboo mushroom)

Medicinal use of Phallus indusiatus was first noted during the Tang Dynasty. Phallus indusiatus extracts promote NGF-synthesis and have anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Phallus indusiatus isolates include 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfural, the antibiotic albaflavenone, dictyophorines, and dictyoquinazols.

Pholiota nameko (Nameko)

Pholiota nameko (left) Pleurotus citrinopileatus (center) Pleurotus djamor (right)

Pholiota nameko creates compounds with antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, and hypolipidemic activities.[33][34][35]

Pleurotus citrinopileatus (Golden oyster mushroom)

Pleurotus citrinopileatus extracts have antihyperglycemic activity in vivo.

Pleurotus djamor (Pink oyster mushroom)

A Pleurotus djamor isolate has anticancer activity in vitro.[36]

Pleurotus eryngii (King oyster mushroom, eringi)

Pleurotus eryngii (left) Pleurotus ostreatus (center) Sparassis crispa (right)

Pleurotus eryngii extracts have immunomodulatory activities in vitro.[37] Pleurone, erylysin A and B, eryngase, ubiquinone-9, eryngeolysin, a 14 kDa phytase, eryngin, eryngiolide A, and pleureryn, are researched Pleurotus eryngii isolates.

Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom, hiratake)

Pleurotus ostreatus creates lovastatin, chrysin, pleuran, and ACE inhibitor peptides.[38][39] Pleurotus ostreatus extracts may inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, as well as having potential anticancer and immunomodulatory activities.[40][41][42]

Sparassis crispa (Cauliflower mushroom)

Sparassis crispa has anticancer and immunomodulating activity in vivo.[43][44][45][46][47]

Tremella fuciformis (White jelly fungus)

'
Tremella fuciformis (left) Tremella mesenterica (right)

A Tremella fuciformis isolate protected against effects of radiation in vivo.

Tremella mesenterica (Golden jelly fungus)

Tremella mesenterica has potential anticancer and immunomodulating activities.[48][49][50]

Tricholoma matsutake (Matsutake, pine mushroom)

'
Tricholoma matsutake (left) Ustilago maydis (center) Volvariella volvacea (right)

Isolates from the mycorrhizal mushroom, Tricholoma matsutake, have anticancer and immunomodulating activities. [51][52][53][54][55][56][57]

Ustilago maydis (Mexican truffle, huitlacoche, corn fungus)

Ustilago maydis creates ustilagine and ustilagic acid.[58]

Volvariella volvacea (Straw mushroom)

Volvariella volvacea, a mushroom associated with Southeast Asia, has anticancer activity in vitro.[59][60]

Extractable species

Astraeus hygrometricus (Earthstar)

Astraeus hygrometricus (left) Fomes fomentarius (center) Ganoderma lucidum (right)

Astraeus hygrometricus, a mushroom associated with India and China, has anticancer activity in vivo.[61][62]

Cyathus stercoreus

Cyathus stercoreus creates polyketide antioxidants, cyathusals, cyathuscavins, and pulvinatal.[63][64]

Cyathus striatus

Cyathus striatus creates cyathins, striatins, and antimicrobial compounds.[65][66][67]

Fomes fomentarius (Amadou, tinder conk)

Fomes fomentarius extracts have immunomodulatory activity in vivo, and anticancer activity in vitro.[68][69]

Ganoderma lucidum (Ling zhi, mannentake, reishi)

Ganoderma lucidum is the mushroom with the longest record of medicinal use. Ganoderma lucidum is thought to be useful against a variety of ailments. Ganoderma lucidum contains p-hydroxybenzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and lanostane-type triterpenoids like ganoderic acids.[70]

Hydnellum peckii

'
Hydnellum peckii (left) Inonotus obliquus (center) Peziza vesiculosa (right)

Atromentin is an anticoagulant isolated from the mycorrhizal mushroom Hydnellum peckii.[71][72]

Inonotus obliquus (Chaga)

Inonotus obliquus has been used for centuries in Russia and Eastern Europe. Inotodiol, melanin, trametenolic acid, and the betulinic acid precursor betulin are researched Inonotus obliquus isolates.[73] An in vivo study showed an Inonotus obliquus extract increased the melanoma survival rate 4-fold. Additional research indicates potential anticancer activity.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80] Befungin is a commercial Russian extract of Inonotus obliquus.[81]

Peziza vesiculosa

Peziza vesiculosa creates vesiculogen, and has been researched for anticancer activity.[82][83][84][85][86]

Phellinus linteus (Meshimakobu, sanghwang)

'
Phellinus igniarius (left) Piptoporus betulinus (right)

Phellinus linteus is a mushroom associated with Korea. Phellinus linteus isolates include hispidin, inotilone, hispolon, phellinins, phellinstatin, interfungins, and hypholomine B.[87] Researchers have also studied the related species P. igniarius and P. rimosus.

Piptoporus betulinus (Birch polypore)

A hydroquinone isolated from Piptoporus betulinus inhibited a matrix metalloproteinase.[88]

Polyporus umbellatus

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Polyporus umbellatus (left) Schizophyllum commune (right)

Polyporus umbellatus extracts have anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and immunomodulating activities, in vitro.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96]

Poria cocos

Poria cocos is a medicinal fungus associated with China.[97]

Schizophyllum commune (Split gill)

Schizophyllan (SPG, sizofiran, sonifilan), an isolate of Schizophyllum commune, has been researched clinically for anticancer activity.[98] Hydrophobins were originally isolated from Schizophyllum commune. A chemically analogous polysaccharide, scleroglucan, is an isolate of Sclerotium rolfsii.

Taiwanofungus camphoratus (Antrodia camphorata/cinnamomea, niuchangchih)

Antroquinonol, antrocamphins, zhankuic acids, and antcins are researched Taiwanofungus camphoratus isolates.

Trametes gibbosa (Daedalea gibbosa)

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Trametes gibbosa (left) Trametes versicolor (center) Xylaria hypoxylon (right)

A Trametes gibbosa extract inhibited leukemia in vivo.[99]

Trametes versicolor (Coriolus versicolor, yun zhi, kawaratake, turkey tail)

Medicinal use of Trametes versicolor was first noted during the Ming Dynasty. PSK (Krestin, polysaccharide-K) and PSP (polysaccharopeptide) are protein-bound polysaccharides isolated from different Trametes versicolor mycelia strains. In Japan, PSK is a gastric cancer adjuvant. Japan began using PSK in 1977, while China began using PSP in 1987.

Xylaria hypoxylon {Candlestick fungus)

Xylaria hypoxylon extracts have hemagglutinating, antiproliferative, and antimitogenic activities.[100][101][102][103]

Contamination hazards

Mushrooms can accumulate, even hyper-accumulate, particular heavy metals and radionuclides.[104]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Maitake Mushroom". Complementary and Alternative Medicine : Diet and Nutrition. American Cancer Society. 2008. Retrieved 2011-03-08. 
  2. ↑ Muhammad. "Book 23, Chapter 27". Hadith. Sahih Muslim. pp. 5084–9. ISBN 0-7045-0303-4. 
  3. ↑ Peintner, U; Poder, R; Pumpel, T (1998). "The iceman's fungi". Mycological Research 102 (10): 1153–62. doi:10.1017/S0953756298006546. 
  4. ↑ Zheng, Weifa; Miao, Kangjie; Liu, Yubing; Zhao, Yanxia; Zhang, Meimei; Pan, Shenyuan; Dai, Yucheng (2010). "Chemical diversity of biologically active metabolites in the sclerotia of Inonotus obliquus and submerged culture strategies for up-regulating their production". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 87 (4): 1237–54. doi:10.1007/s00253-010-2682-4. PMID 20532760. 
  5. ↑ Han F, Kang LZ, Zeng XL, Ye ZW, Guo LQ, Lin JF (2014). "Bioproduction of baccatin III, an advanced precursor of paclitaxol with transgenic Flammulina velutipes expressing 10-Deacetylbaccatin III-10-O-acetyl transferase gene.". J Sci Food Agric. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6562. PMID 24403190. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ina, K; Kataoka, T; Ando, T (2013). "The use of lentinan for treating gastric cancer". Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry 13 (5): 681–8. doi:10.2174/1871520611313050002. PMC 3664515. PMID 23092289. 
  7. ↑ "Lentinan". Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. 27 February 2013. Retrieved August 2013. 
  8. ↑ "Mushrooms and cancer". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved August 2013. 
  9. ↑ Gao, Y; Xu, H; Lu, Z; Xu, Z (2009). "Quantitative determination of steroids in the fruiting bodies and submerged-cultured mycelia of Inonotus obliquus". Se pu = Chinese journal of chromatography / Zhongguo hua xue hui 27 (6): 745–9. PMID 20352924. 
  10. ↑ Lo, HC; Wasser, SP (2011). "Medicinal mushrooms for glycemic control in diabetes mellitus: History, current status, future perspectives, and unsolved problems (review)". International journal of medicinal mushrooms 13 (5): 401–26. PMID 22324407. 
  11. ↑ PMID 24494050 (PubMed)
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  12. ↑ PMID 22230474 (PubMed)
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  13. ↑ Ren, Z; Guo, Z; Meydani, SN; Wu, Dayong (2008). "White button mushroom enhances maturation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and their antigen presenting function in mice". The Journal of nutrition 138 (3): 544–50. PMID 18287364. 
  14. ↑ Wu, Dayong; Pae, Munkyong; Ren, Zhihong; Guo, Zhuyan; Smith, Donald; Meydani, Simin Nikbin (2007). "Dietary supplementation with white button mushroom enhances natural killer cell activity in C57BL/6 mice". The Journal of nutrition 137 (6): 1472–7. PMID 17513409. 
  15. ↑ Yu, Lugang; Fernig, David G.; Smith, John A.; Milton, Jeremy D.; Rhodes, Jonathan M. (1993). "Reversible inhibition of proliferation of epithelial cell lines by Agaricus bisporus (edible mushroom) lectin". Cancer Research 53 (19): 4627–32. PMID 8402638. 
  16. ↑ Takaku, Takeshi; Kimura, Yoshiyuki; Okuda, Hiromichi (May 2001). "Isolation of an antitumor compound from Agaricus blazei Murill and its mechanism of action". The Journal of Nutrition 131 (5): 1409–13. PMID 11340091. 
  17. ↑ Hyodo, I.; Amano, N; Eguchi, K; Narabayashi, M; Imanishi, J; Hirai, M; Nakano, T; Takashima, S (2004). "Nationwide Survey on Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Cancer Patients in Japan". Journal of Clinical Oncology 23 (12): 2645–54. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.04.126. PMID 15728227. 
  18. ↑ Fortes, RC; Novaes, MRCG; Recova, VL; Melo, AL (2009). "Immunological, hematological, and glycemia effects of dietary supplementation with Agaricus sylvaticus on patients' colorectal cancer". Experimental Biology and Medicine 234 (1): 53–62. doi:10.3181/0806-RM-193. PMID 18997106. 
  19. ↑ Ahn, W.-S.; Kim, D.-J.; Chae, G.-T.; Lee, J.-M.; Bae, S.-M.; Sin, J.-I.; Kim, Y.-W.; Namkoong, S.-E.; Lee, I. P. (2004). "Natural killer cell activity and quality of life were improved by consumption of a mushroom extract, Agaricus blazei Murill Kyowa, in gynecological cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy". International Journal of Gynecological Cancer 14 (4): 589–94. doi:10.1111/j.1048-891X.2004.14403.x. PMID 15304151. 
  20. ↑ "Agaricus". About Herbs, Botanicals & Other Products. Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved 2010-01-18. 
  21. ↑ Hetland, G.; Johnson, E.; Lyberg, T.; Bernardshaw, S.; Tryggestad, A. M. A.; Grinde, B. (2008). "Effects of the Medicinal Mushroom Agaricus blazei Murill on Immunity, Infection and Cancer". Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 68 (4): 363–70. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02156.x. PMID 18782264. 
  22. ↑ Ji Y, Zheng MF, Ye SG, Wu XB, Chen JY (2012). "Agrocybe aegerita polysaccharide combined with chemotherapy improves tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ levels in rat esophageal carcinoma.". Dis Esophagus. doi:10.1111/j.1442-2050.2012.01397.x. PMID 22947091. 
  23. ↑ Takeujchi, H; He, P; Mooi, LY (2004). "Reductive effect of hot-water extracts from woody ear (Auricularia auricula-judae Quel.) on food intake and blood glucose concentration in genetically diabetic KK-Ay mice". Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology 50 (4): 300–4. PMID 15527075. 
  24. ↑ Misaki, A; Kakuta, M; Sasaki, T; Tanaka, M; Miyaji, H (1981). "Studies on interrelation of structure and antitumor effects of polysaccharides: Antitumor action of periodate-modified, branched (1 goes to 3)-beta-D-glucan of Auricularia auricula-judae, and other polysaccharides containing (1 goes to 3)-glycosidic linkages". Carbohydrate research 92 (1): 115–29. doi:10.1016/S0008-6215(00)85986-8. PMID 7196285. 
  25. ↑ Song G, Du Q (2010). "Isolation of a polysaccharide with anticancer activity from Auricularia polytricha using high-speed countercurrent chromatography with an aqueous two-phase system.". J Chromatogr A 1217 (38): 5930–4. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2010.07.036. PMID 20719324. 
  26. ↑ "l-theanine". drugs.com. 
  27. ↑ Bovi, Michele; Carrizo, Maria E.; Capaldi, Stefano; Perduca, Massimiliano; Chiarelli, Laurent R.; Galliano, Monica; Monaco, Hugo L. (2011). "Structure of a lectin with antitumoral properties in king bolete (Boletus edulis) mushrooms". Glycobiology 21 (8): 1000–9. doi:10.1093/glycob/cwr012. PMID 21303815. 
  28. ↑ Dotan, Nesly; Wasser, Solomon P.; Mahajna, Jamal (2010). "The Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom Coprinus comatus as a Natural Antiandrogenic Modulator". Integrative Cancer Therapies 10 (2): 148–59. doi:10.1177/1534735410383169. PMID 21147815. 
  29. ↑ Khan, Md.Asaduzzaman; Tania, Mousumi; Zhang, Dian-Zheng; Chen, Han-Chun (2010). "Cordyceps Mushroom: A Potent Anticancer Nutraceutical". The Open Nutraceuticals Journal 3: 179–83. doi:10.2174/1876396001003010179. 
  30. ↑ Lee SS, Tan NH, Fung SY, Pailoor J, Sim SM (2011). "Evaluation of the sub-acute toxicity of the sclerotium of Lignosus rhinocerus (Cooke), the Tiger Milk mushroom.". J Ethnopharmacol 138 (1): 192–200. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.09.004. PMID 21930194. 
  31. ↑ Duncan, Christine J. G.; Pugh, Nirmal; Pasco, David S.; Ross, Samir A. (2002). "Isolation of a Galactomannan That Enhances Macrophage Activation from the Edible FungusMorchella esculenta". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (20): 5683–5. doi:10.1021/jf020267c. PMID 12236698. 
  32. ↑ Kuznecova G, Jegina K, Kuznecovs S, Kuznecovs I (2007). "Phallus impudicus in thromboprophylaxis in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and hormonal treatment". The Breast 16 (S1): S56. 
  33. ↑ Li H, Zhang M, Ma G (2010). "Hypolipidemic effect of the polysaccharide from Pholiota nameko.". Nutrition 26 (5): 556–62. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.009. PMID 19815391. 
  34. ↑ Li H, Lu X, Zhang S, Lu M, Liu H (2008). "Anti-inflammatory activity of polysaccharide from Pholiota nameko.". Biochemistry (Mosc) 73 (6): 669–75. PMID 18620532. 
  35. ↑ Li H, Liu X, Li Y, Hua Y, Zhi D, Pang G (2012). "Effects of the polysaccharide from Pholiota nameko on human cytokine network in serum.". Int J Biol Macromol 50 (1): 164–70. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.10.015. PMID 22044749. 
  36. ↑ Wu, Xiangli; Zheng, Suyue; Cui, Li; Wang, Hexiang; Ng, Tzi Bun (2010). "Isolation and characterization of a novel ribonuclease from the pink oyster mushroom Pleurotus djamor". The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology 56 (3): 231–9. doi:10.2323/jgam.56.231. PMID 20647680. 
  37. ↑ Nozaki, Hirofumi; Itonori, Saki; Sugita, Mutsumi; Nakamura, Kimihide; Ohba, Kiyoshi; Suzuki, Akemi; Kushi, Yasunori (2008). "Mushroom acidic glycosphingolipid induction of cytokine secretion from murine T cells and proliferation of NK1.1 α/β TCR-double positive cells in vitro". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 373 (3): 435–9. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.06.047. PMID 18577373. 
  38. ↑ Gunde-Cimerman, N; Cimerman, A (1995). "Pleurotus Fruiting Bodies Contain the Inhibitor of 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl-Coenzyme a Reductase—Lovastatin". Experimental Mycology 19 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1006/emyc.1995.1001. PMID 7614366. 
  39. ↑ Alarcón, J; Aguila, S (2006). "Lovastatin production by Pleurotus ostreatus: effects of the C:N ratio". Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. C, Journal of biosciences 61 (1–2): 95–8. PMID 16610224. 
  40. ↑ Sliva (1992). "Pleurotus ostreatus inhibits proliferation of human breast and colon cancer cells through p53-dependent as well as p53-independent pathway". International Journal of Oncology: 1307–13. doi:10.3892/ijo_00000122. 
  41. ↑ Bobek, P; Galbavy, S (2001). "Effect of pleuran (beta-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) on the antioxidant status of the organism and on dimethylhydrazine-induced precancerous lesions in rat colon". British journal of biomedical science 58 (3): 164–8. PMID 11575739. 
  42. ↑ Zusman, I; Reifen, R; Livni, O; Smirnoff, P; Gurevich, P; Sandler, B; Nyska, A; Gal, R; Tendler, Y (1997). "Role of apoptosis, proliferating cell nuclear antigen and p53 protein in chemically induced colon cancer in rats fed corncob fiber treated with the fungus Pleurotus ostreatus". Anticancer research 17 (3C): 2105–13. PMID 9216672. 
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