Lupinus

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Lupinus
sundial lupine (Lupinus perennis)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Genisteae
Subtribe: Lupininae
Genus: Lupinus
L.
Species

up to 500; see text

Lupinus, commonly known as lupin or lupine (North America), is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. The genus includes over 200 species, with centers of diversity in North and South America.[1] Smaller centers occur in North Africa and the Mediterranean.[1][2]

Description

The species are mostly herbaceous perennial plants 0.3–1.5 m (0.98–4.92 ft) tall, but some are annual plants and a few are shrubs up to 3 m (9.8 ft) tall. An exception is the chamis de monte (Lupinus jaimehintoniana) of Oaxaca in Mexico, which is a tree up to 8 m (26 ft) tall.[3] Lupins have soft green to grey-green leaves which may be coated in silvery hairs, often densely so. The leaf blades are usually palmately divided into five to 28 leaflets, or reduced to a single leaflet in a few species of the southeastern United States. The flowers are produced in dense or open whorls on an erect spike, each flower 1–2 cm long. The pea-like flowers have an upper standard, or banner, two lateral wings, and two lower petals fused into a keel. The flower shape has inspired common names such as bluebonnets and quaker bonnets. The fruit is a pod containing several seeds.

Uses

Culinary

The legume seeds of lupins, commonly called lupin beans, were popular with the Romans, who cultivated the plants throughout the Roman Empire; hence, common names like lupini in Romance languages. The name 'lupin' derives from the Latin word lupinus (meaning "of or belonging to a wolf; made of wolf-skin").[4] It is not certain why the genus earned such a name but it may have been inspired by the reputation of lupins as killers of livestock due to their toxicity,[5] or the belief that they ravenously consume the nutrients in the soil.[6]

Lupin beans are commonly sold in a salty solution in jars (like olives and pickles) and can be eaten with or without the skin. Lupini dishes are most commonly found in Europe, especially in Portugal, Egypt, Greece, and Italy, and also in Brazil. In Portugal, Spain, and Spanish Harlem, they are popularly consumed with beer. In Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Israel and Palestine, salty and chilled lupini beans are called termos and are served as part of an apéritif or a snack. The Andean lupin or tarwi (L. mutabilis) was a widespread food in the Incan Empire. Other species, such as L. albus (white lupin), L. angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin),[7] and L. hirsutus (blue lupin)[8] also have edible seeds. Lupins were also used by many Native American peoples such as the Yavapai in North America. Lupins are known as altramuz in Spain and Argentina. Edible lupins are referred to as sweet lupins because they contain smaller amounts of toxic alkaloids than the bitter lupin varieties. Newly bred variants of sweet lupins are grown extensively in Germany; they lack any bitter taste and require no soaking in salt solution. The seeds are used for different foods, from vegan sausages to lupin-tofu or baking-enhancing lupin flour.

Use of Australian Sweet Lupin in Foods

Australian Sweet Lupins (Lupinus angustifolius) are high in protein, dietary fibre and antioxidants, very low in starch and are gluten and GMO - free. Lupins can be used to make a variety of foods both sweet and savoury including everyday meals, traditional fermented foods, baked foods and sauces.

Agriculture

Whilst originally cultivated as a green manure or forage, lupins are increasingly grown for their seeds, which can be used as an alternative to soybeans. Sweet (low alkaloid) lupins are highly regarded as a stock feed, particularly for ruminants but also for pigs and poultry and more recently as an ingredient in aqua-feeds. The market for lupin seeds for human food is currently small, but researchers believe it has great potential. Lupin seeds are considered "superior" to soybeans in certain applications and there is increasing evidence for their potential health benefits. They contain similar protein to soybean but less fat. As a food source, they are gluten-free and high in dietary fiber, amino acids, and antioxidants, and they are considered to be prebiotic. About 85% of the world's lupin seeds are grown in Western Australia.[9]

Three Mediterranean species of lupin, blue lupin, white lupin, and yellow lupin, are widely cultivated for livestock and poultry feed.

Like other legumes, they can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia via a rhizobium-root nodule symbiosis, fertilizing the soil for other plants. This adaption allows lupins to be tolerant of infertile soils and capable of pioneering change in barren and poor-quality soils. The genus Lupinus is nodulated by Bradyrhizobium soil bacteria.[10]

Ornamental lupins, Ushuaia

Horticulture

Lupins at Lake Tekapo, New Zealand

Lupins are popular ornamental plants in gardens. Numerous hybrids and cultivars are available. Some species, such as garden lupin (L. polyphyllus) and hybrids like the rainbow lupin (L. × regalis) are common garden flowers. Lupins can be good companion plants in gardens, increasing the soil nitrogen for vegetables and other plants.

Diseases of lupins include anthracnose, wilt, and root rot caused by Fusarium and other plant pathogens, including bacteria and plant viruses.[10]

Ecology

Certain species, such as the yellow bush lupin (L. arboreus), are considered invasive weeds when they appear outside their native ranges. In New Zealand, L. polyphyllus has escaped into the wild and grows in large numbers along main roads and streams on the South Island. A similar spread of the species has occurred in Finland after the non-native species was first deliberately planted in the landscaping along the main roads. Lupins have been planted in some parts of Australia with a considerably cooler climate, particularly in rural Victoria and New South Wales.

Canadian tiger swallowtail on wild lupine, Gatineau, Quebec

Lupins are important larval food plants for many lepidopterans, the butterflies and moths. These include:

Toxicity and allergenicity

Main article: Lupin poisoning

Lupins contain significant amounts of certain secondary compounds, including isoflavones and toxic alkaloids such as lupinine and sparteine.

Both sweet and bitter lupins in feed can cause livestock poisoning. Lupin poisoning is a nervous syndrome caused by alkaloids in bitter lupins, similar to neurolathyrism. Mycotoxic lupinosis is a disease caused by lupin material infected with the fungus Diaporthe toxica.[17] The fungus produces mycotoxins called phomopsins, which cause liver damage. Poisonous lupin seeds cause annually the loss of many cattle and sheep on western American ranges.[18]

Lupins are also allergens. In one study, 44% of people with peanut allergy had a positive allergy test for lupin and seven of eight who had a positive test experienced a reaction to ingested lupin.[19] Most lupin reactions reported have been in people with peanut allergy.[20] As of 2006 the European Commission requires food labels to indicate the presence of "lupin and products thereof" in food.[21]

Taxonomy

Lupinus sp., Raspberry Island, Alaska
Lupinus flavoculatus
Russell hybrid lupin Lupinus polyphyllus, UK
Lupinus texensis, a bluebonnet, the state flower of Texas
Lupinus in Hokkaido, Japan
Lupinus 'My Castle'

The taxonomy of this genus has always been confusing. It is not clear how many distinct species there are or how they might be organized within the genus. The plants are variable and the taxa are not always distinct from one another. Some American taxa have been described as complexes rather than separate species.[22] Estimates of the number of lupine species generally fall between 200 and 500.[2] One authority places the estimate at approximately 267 species worldwide.[1]

History

Watson (1873) originally divided the genus Lupinus into three sections, Platycarpos, Lupinus, and Lupinellus, based on habitat and the number of ovules. Most of the species found in the Americas were assigned to Lupinus. Platycarpos consisted of some annuals with two ovules and two seeds (e.g., L. densiflorus, L. micricarpus), while Lupinellus had only one species (L. uncialis).

While Watson's work was predominantly based on study of North American species, the later research of Ascherson and Graebner (1907) was more global. They described two subgenera, Eulupinus and Platycarpos, using similar criteria. Most species fell into the subgenus Eulupinus, while Platycarpos included the annual species from the Eastern Hemisphere in Watson's classification.

A current schema retains this distinction, but uses the nomenclature for the subgenera of Platycarpos and Lupinus. In this schema, subgenus Platycarpos (S.Wats.) Kurl. contains perennial and annual species from the Western Hemisphere, with a minimum two or more ovules or seedbuds. Subgenus Lupinus consists of 12 species from Africa and the Mediterranean, with a minimum of 4 ovules or seedbuds.[10]

Subgenus Platycarpos

Lupinus angustifolius
Lupinus pilosus, Israel

Taxa include:

Subgenus Lupinus


  • Lupinus albus L. 1753 – white lupine (subgenus type species)
  • Lupinus angustifolius L. 1753 – blue lupin, narrow-leafed lupin
  • Lupinus atlanticus Gladstones, 1974
  • Lupinus cosentinii Guss. 1828 ; sandplain lupin
  • Lupinus digitatus Forsk. 1775
  • Lupinus hispanicus Boiss. et Reut. 1842
  • Lupinus luteus L. 1753 – yellow lupin
  • Lupinus micranthus Guss. 1828
  • Lupinus palaestinus Boiss. 1849 – white-grey lupine
  • Lupinus pilosus Murr. 1774 – blue lupine
  • Lupinus princei Harms, 1901
  • Lupinus somaliensis Baker, 1895

Symbolic uses

Bluebonnets, including the Texas bluebonnet (L. texensis), are the state flowers of Texas in the United States.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lupinus.
Wikispecies has information related to: Lupinus

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Drummond, C. S., et al. (2012). Multiple continental radiations and correlates of diversification in Lupinus (Leguminosae): Testing for key innovation with incomplete taxon sampling. Systematic Biology 61(3) 443-60.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Aïnouche, A. K. and R. J. Bayer. (1999). Phylogenetic relationships in Lupinus (Fabaceae: Papilionoideae) based on internal transcribed spacer sequences (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany 86(4), 590-607.
  3. ↑ Villa-Ruano, N., et al. (2012). Alkaloid profile, antibacterial and allelopathic activities of Lupinus jaimehintoniana BL Turner (Fabaceae). Archives of Biological Sciences 64(3), 1065-71.
  4. ↑ "lupinus". 'Words by William Whitaker. Accessed 2 August 2013.
  5. ↑ Lloyd, K. Lupinus argenteus. Montana State Parks.
  6. ↑ Lupinus polyphyllus (large-leaved lupin). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
  7. ↑ Murcia, J. and I. Hoyos. (1998). 'Características y applicaciones de las plantas: Altramuz Azul (Lupinus angustifolius). [in Spanish]. Accessed 3 August 2013.
  8. ↑ Hedrick, U. P. (ed.) Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. 1919. 387-88.
  9. ↑ Ross, K. Soy substitute edges its way into European meals. New York Times November 16, 2011.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Kurlovich, B. S. and A. K. Stankevich. (eds.) Classification of Lupins. In: Lupins: Geography, Classification, Genetic Resources and Breeding. St. Petersburg: Intan. 2002. pg 42-43. Accessed 2 August 2013.
  11. ↑ Mission Blue Butterfly. Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy.
  12. ↑ Callophrys irus. Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility.
  13. ↑ Erynnis persius. Atlas of North Dakota Butterflies. USGS.
  14. ↑ Glaucopsyche lygdamus. Atlas of North Dakota Butterflies. USGS.
  15. ↑ Plebejus melissa. Butterflies and Moths of North America.
  16. ↑ Schinia suetus. Entomology Collection. University of Alberta.
  17. ↑ Williamson, N. P., et al. (1994). Diaporthe toxica sp. nov., the cause of lupinosis in sheep. Mycological Research 98(12), 1364-68.
  18. ↑ Hutchins, R. E. The Amazing Seed. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. 1965.
  19. ↑ Moneret-Vautrin, D. A., et al. (1999). Cross-allergenicity of peanut and lupine: the risk of lupine allergy in patients allergic to peanuts. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 104(4 Pt. 1), 883-88.
  20. ↑ Opinion of the scientific panel on dietetic products, nutrition and allergies on a request from the Commission related to the evaluation of lupin for labelling purposes. The European Food Safety Authority Journal 302 1-11. 2005.
  21. ↑ Commission Directive 2006/142/EC of 22 December 2006 amending Annex IIIa of Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council listing the ingredients which must under all circumstances appear on the labelling of foodstuffs.
  22. ↑ Naganowska, B., et al. (2005). 2C DNA variation and relationships among New World species of the genus Lupinus (Fabaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 256(1-4), 147-57.

References

  • Eastwood, R. J., et al. 2008. Diversity and evolutionary history of lupins – insights from new phylogenies. Pp. 346-54, In: Palta, J. A. and J. B. Burger. (Eds.) Lupins for Health & Wealth. Proceedings 12th International Lupin Conference, Fremantle, Australia; International Lupin Association, Canterbury, New Zealand.
  • Putnam, D. H., et al. Lupine. Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Minnesota, University of Wisconsin Extension. 1997.

External links

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