Jewish–Roman wars

Jewish–Roman wars
Depiction of the Roman Triumph celebrating the Sack of Jerusalem on the Arch of Titus in Rome. The procession features the Menorah and other vessels taken from the Second Temple.
Date 66–136 (70 years) Location Roman Judea, Cyprus, Cyrenaica, Mesopotamia Result Decisive Roman Empire victory: Destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple Mass murder of Judean population and diaspora of survivors Schism between Judaism and early Christianity Consolidation of non-messianic Jewish sects into Rabbinic Judaism Consolidation of Jewish center in Galilee Territorial changes Roman Judea (Iudaea) remained under Roman control, renamed and merged into the Province of Syria Palaestina
Belligerents
Roman Empire	Jewish Zealots; Jewish rebels; Bar-Kokhba's army.
Commanders and leaders
Titus Vespasian Marcus Lupus Marcius Turbo Lusius Quietus Hadrian	Hannan, Bar-Giora, Elazar, John; Artemion, Lukuas (Andreas), Julian and Pappus; Simon bar Kokhba
Strength
Great revolt: 30,000 (Beth Horon) - 60,000 (Siege of Jerusalem) Kitos War: forces of the eastern legions Bar Kokhba revolt: 7 full legions with cohorts and auxilaries of 5 additional legions – about 120,000 total.	Great revolt: 25,000+ Jewish militias; 20,000 Edomeans Kitos War: loosely organized tens of thousands Bar-Kokhba revolt: 200,000 – 400,000 militia men
Casualties and losses
Great revolt: Legio XII Fulminata lost its aquila and Syrian contingent destroyed – about 20,000 casualties; Kitos War: 240,000 civilians killed in Cyprus (per Dio),[1] 200,000 in Cyrenaica; Bar-Kokhba revolt: Legio XXII Deiotariana destroyed, Legio IX Hispana possibly disbanded,[2] Legio X Fretensis - sustained heavy casualties	Great revolt: 250 thousand[3] – 1,1 million (per Josephus) Jews massacred; enslavement of 97,000; Kitos War: annihilation of Jewish communities in Cyprus, Cyrenaica and Alexandria; Bar Kokhba revolt: 400,000[3] – 580,000 (per Dio) civilians and militia massacred, 985 Judean villages razed (per Cassius Dio).

The Jewish–Roman wars were a series of large-scale revolts by the Jews of Iudaea Province and the Eastern Mediterranean against the Roman Empire between 66 and 135 CE. The revolts integrated nationalist, religious and ethnic elements, all spiraling towards violence upon polytheist Romans and Greeks population. While the Great Revolt of Judea (66-73 CE) and the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (132-135 CE) were nationalist rebellions, striving to restore an independent Judean state, the Kitos War was more of an ethno-religious civil, mostly fought outside of Judea province. Hence, some sources use the term Jewish-Roman Wars to refer only to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE), while others include the Kitos War (115–117) as one of the Jewish–Roman wars.

The Jewish–Roman wars had an epic impact on the Jews, turning them from a major population in the Eastern Mediterranean into a scattered and persecuted minority. The Jewish-Roman Wars are often cited as a disaster to Jewish society.^[4] The events also had a major impact on Judaism, after the central worship site of Second Temple Judaism, the Second Temple in Jerusalem, was destroyed by Titus' troops. Although having a sort of autonomy in the Galilee until the 4th century such as the School of Iamnia(Yavne) and later a limited success in establishing the short-lived Sassanid Jewish Commonwealth in 614-17 CE, Jewish dominance in parts of the Southern Levant was regained only in the mid-20th century, with the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.

Sequence

The Jewish–Roman wars include the following:

• First Jewish–Roman War (66–73) — also called the First Jewish Revolt or the Great Jewish Revolt, spanning from the 66 CE insurrection, through the 67 fall of the Galilee, the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and institution of the Fiscus Judaicus in 70, and finally the fall of Masada in 73.
• Kitos War (115–117) — known as the "Rebellion of the Exile" and sometimes called the Second Jewish-Roman War.
• Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135) — also called the Second Jewish-Roman War (when Kitos War is not counted), or the Third (when the Kitos War is counted).

Background

Following increasing Roman domination of the Eastern Mediterranean, the client kingdom of the Herodian dynasty had been officially merged into the Roman Empire in the year 6 CE with the creation of Roman Judea. The transition of the Tetrarchy of Judea into a Roman province immediately brought a great deal of tensions and a Jewish uprising by Judas of Galilee erupted right away as a response to the Census of Quirinius.

Though initially pacified (the years between 7 and 26 being relatively quiet), the province continued to be a source of trouble under Emperor Caligula (after 37 CE). The cause of tensions in the east of the Empire was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman Law and the rights of Jews in the Empire. Caligula did not trust the prefect of Roman Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists.^[5] In 38 CE, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus.^[6] According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population, who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews.^[7] Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues.^[8] As a result, extensive religious riots broke out in the city.^[9] Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him.^[10] In 39 CE, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories.^[11]

Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 CE between Jews and Greeks.^[12] Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor.^[12] Disputes occurred also in the city of Jamnia.^[13] Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it.^[13] In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Temple of Jerusalem,^[14] a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.^[15] In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his".^[15] The governor of Roman Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order were carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.^[16] Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.^[12] However, only Caligula's death at the hands of Roman conspirators in 41 CE prevented a full scale war in Judaea, that might have well spread to the entire Eastern Roman Empire.^[17]

Caligula's death didn't stop the tensions completely and in 46 CE an insurrection by the Jews broke out in Judeaea province. The Jacob and Simon uprising was instigated by two brothers Simon and Jacob and lasted between 46-48 CE. The revolt, which concentrated in the Galilee began as sporadic insurgency and when climaxed in 48 CE was quickly put down by Roman authorities and both brothers executed.

History

Great Revolt

The Great Revolt began in the year 66 CE, originating in the Greek and Jewish religious tensions, and later escalated due to anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens.^[18] In response to Roman plunder of the Second Jewish Temple and execution of up to 6,000 Jews in Jerusalem, a full-scale rebellion erupted. The Roman military garrison of Judaea was quickly overrun by rebels, while the pro-Roman king Agrippa II together with Roman officials fled Jerusalem. As it became clear, the rebellion was getting out of control, Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. Despite initial advances, the Syrian Legion was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon with 6,000 Romans massacred and Legio aquilla lost - a result that shocked the Roman leadership.

The experienced and unassuming general Vespasian was then tasked with crushing the rebellion in Judaea province. His second-in-command was appointed his son Titus. Vespasian was given four legions and assisted by forces of King Agrippa II. In 67 CE he invaded Galilee. While avoiding a direct attack on reinforced city of Jerusalem packed with main rebel force, Titus' forces launched a persistent campaign of terror to eradicate rebel strongholds and punish the population. Within several months Vespasian and Titus took over the major Jewish strongholds of Galilee and finally overran Jodapatha under command of Yosef ben Matitiyahu, following a 47 day siege. Meantime in Jerusalem, an attempt of Sicarii leader Menahem to take control of the city failed, himself being executed. A charismatic, but radical peasant leader Simon Bar-Giora was ousted from the city by the new moderate Judean government and Ananus ben Ananus began reinforcing the city.

Driven from Galilee, Zealot rebels and thousands of refugees arrived to Judea, creating a political turmoil in Jerusalem. Zealots were at first sealed in the Temple compound. However, the confrontation of the mainly Sadducee Jerusalemites and the mainly Zealot factions of the Northern Revolt under the command of John of Giscala and Eleazar ben Simon became evident. With Edomites entering the city and fighting by the side of the Zealots, Ananus ben Ananus was killed and his forces suffered severe casualties. Simon Bar Giora, commanding 15,000 troops, was then invited into Jerusalem by the Sadducee leaders to stand against the Zealots, and quickly took control over much of the city. Bitter infighting between factions of Bar Giora, John and Elazar followed through the year 69 CE.

After a lull in the military operations, owing to civil war and political turmoil in Rome, Vespasian was called to Rome and appointed a new Emperor in 69 CE. With Vespasian's departure, Titus moved on besieging the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in early 70 CE. While the first two walls of Jerusalem were breached within three weeks, a stubborn stand prevented the Roman Army from breaking the third and thickest wall. Following a brutal seven month siege, in which the Zealot infighting resulted in burning of the entire food supplies of the city to enhance "fighting to the end", the Romans finally succeeded in breaching the weakened Jewish forces in summer of 70 CE. Following the fall of Jerusalem, Titus left for Rome, while Legion X Fretensis defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on, finalizing the Roman campaign in Masada in 73/74 CE.

Kitos War

The Kitos War (115–117) also known as mered ha'galuyot or mered ha'tfutzot (Rebellion of the exile) is the name given to the second of the Jewish–Roman wars. The Kitos War consisted of major revolts by diasporic Jews in Cyrene (Cyrenaica), Cyprus, Mesopotamia and Aegyptus, which spiraled out of control, resulting in a widespread slaughter of Roman citizens and others (200,000 in Cyrene, 240,000 in Cyprus according to Cassius Dio by the Jewish rebels. The rebellions were finally crushed by Roman legionary forces, chiefly by the Roman general Lusius Quietus, whose nomen later gave the conflict its title, as "Kitos" is a later corruption of Quietus.

Bar Kokhba Revolt

The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE),^[19] (Hebrew: מרד בר כוכבא‎ or mered bar kokhba), was the third major rebellion by the Jews of Judaea Province and Eastern Mediterranean against the Roman Empire and the last of the Jewish–Roman Wars. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was acclaimed as a Messiah, a heroic figure who could restore Israel. The revolt established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for more than two years, but a Roman army made up of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions finally crushed it.^[20] The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, except to attend Tisha B'Av. Although Jewish Christians hailed Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba,^[21] they were barred from Jerusalem along with the rest of the Jews.^{[citation needed]} The war and its aftermath helped differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism (see also Split of early Christianity and Judaism).^{[citation needed]} The rebellion is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt, though some historians relate it as Second Jewish Revolt, not counting the Kitos War, 115–117 CE.^{[citation needed]}

Aftermath

The defeat of the Jewish revolt altered the Jewish diaspora, as many of the Jewish rebels were scattered or sold into slavery. Before Vespasian's departure, the Pharisaic sage and Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai obtained his permission to establish a Judaic school at Yavne. Zakkai was smuggled away from Jerusalem in a coffin by his students. This school later became a major center of Talmudic study (see Mishnah).

Hadrian attempted to root out Judaism, which he saw as the cause of continuous rebellions. He prohibited the Torah and the Hebrew calendar and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scroll was ceremonially burned on the Temple Mount. At the former Temple sanctuary he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, he wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina, supplanting earlier terms, such as Judaea. Similarly, he re-established Jerusalem but now as the Roman polis of Aelia Capitolina, and Jews were forbidden from entering it, except on the day of Tisha B'Av.^[22]

Rabbinic Judaism became a religion centered around synagogues, and the Jews themselves dispersed throughout the Roman world and beyond.^{[citation needed]} With the destruction of Jerusalem, important centers of Jewish culture developed in the Galilee and in Babylonia and work on the Talmud continued in these locations.

See also

• Arch of Titus
• Jewish revolt against Gallus (351) — the Jewish revolt originating in Sepphoris in the Galilee
• Jewish revolt against Heraclius (613) — the Jewish revolt originating in Tiberias in the Galilee.
• List of conflicts in the Near East
• Samaritan Revolts (484–572) — Samaritan incited revolts, originating largely in Neapolis.
• Second Temple
• Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)
• Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)
• Siege of Jerusalem (70)
• Siege of Masada
• History of the Jews in the Roman Empire
• Fiscus Judaicus

References