Felony disenfranchisement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Felony disenfranchisement is not allowing people to vote (known as disenfranchisement) due to their having been convicted of a criminal offence. The right to vote may be temporarily or permanently rescinded.[1] For the affected individual, there are "collateral consequences"[2] including loss of access to jobs, housing, and other facilities.[2] The community to which the felon returns may be unaware of the collateral consequences to the community, including lower percentages of community members who participate in the political process through voting.[1] Opponents have argued that it restricts and conflicts with principles of universal suffrage.[3]

History

The roots of felony disenfranchisement can be traced back to ancient Greek and Roman traditions: disenfranchisement was commonly imposed on those convicted of "infamous" crimes as part of their "civil death", whereby these persons would lose all rights and claim to property. Most medieval common law jurisdictions developed some form of exclusion from the democratic process, ranging from execution on sight to rejection from community processes.[4]

Support

US conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation maintains that felonies are, by definition, serious crimes, and that persons who commit felonies have 'broken' the social contract and have thereby given up their right to participate in a civil society unless the ex-offender can prove over time that they are "participating in the social compact that governs our country and comply with the rules of a civil society".[5] The Heritage Foundation notes that recidivism is common. Proponents of the disenfrancisment of felons argue that due to the high number of ex-offenders in some communities, the ex-offenders "could have a perverse effect on the ability of law abiding citizens to reduce the deadly and debilitating crime in their communities".[6]

Criticism

The presence of disenfranchised community members may affect social norms related voting. "The process of political socialization has the potential to encourage or discourage political participation among eligible voters...the potential for non-felons living in states with criminal policy regimes that exclude ex-felons from voting to be socialized against political participation, and thus be less likely to participate themselves is suggested".[1] Research in the USA shows that the affect of felon disenfranchisement is greater in black communities than in non-Hispanic white communities.[1] The likelihood of a non-felon, non-Hispanic white person voting is not affected by having felons in the community.[1]

Felony disenfranchisement has the potential to affect the outcomes of election.[2] "An analysis of recent election data revealed that at least seven senatorial elections and one presidential election would have been decided differently if convicted felons had retained suffrage".[2] Some also contend that it can be classified as punishment, and cruel and unusual, making it inappropriate in some jurisdictions such as the United States, where it would be a violation of the Eighth Amendment to sentence someone to a lifelong prohibition from voting based on a single felony conviction.[citation needed] If considered as a punishment it is being applied after completion of the penalty or prison sentence imposed as punishment for the crime.

It has also been argued that felony disenfranchisement in some US states, especially Florida in the 2000 Presidential election, de facto amounts to racism.[7][8] Research by sociologists Jeff Manza and Chris Uggen shows the impact of disenfranchisement on the outcome of elections.[9] Their research also suggests that persons involved in the criminal justice system who vote may have lower rates of recidivism.[10]

By country

United States

In 2008 over 5.3 million people in the United States were denied the right to vote because of felony disenfranchisement.[11] Approximately thirteen percent of the United States' population is African American, yet African Americans make up thirty-eight percent of the prison population.[2] Slightly more than fifteen percent of the United States population is Hispanic, while twenty percent of the prison population is Hispanic.[2] People who are felons are disproportionately people of color.[1][2] Felon disenfranchisement laws disproportionately affect communities of color as "they are disproportionately arrested, convicted, and subsequently denied the right to vote".[1] Research has shown that as much as 10 percent of the population in some minority communities in the USA is unable to vote, as a result of felon disfranchisement.[1]

Felony disenfranchisement was a topic of debate during the 2012 Republican presidential primary. Rick Santorum argued for the restoration of voting rights for ex-offenders.[12] Santorum's position was attacked and distorted by Mitt Romney, who alleged that Santorum supported voting rights for offenders while incarcerated rather than Santorum's stated position of restoring voting rights only after the completion of sentence, probation and parole.[12][13] President Barack Obama supports voting rights for ex-offenders.[14]

As of 2011 only Kentucky and Virginia continued to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent some extraordinary intervention by the Governor or state legislature.[15] However, in Kentucky, a felon's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.[15] In 2007 Florida moved to restore voting rights to convicted felons. In March 2011, however, Republican Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms, making Florida the state with the most punitive law in terms of disenfranchising citizens with past felony convictions.[16] In July 2005, Democratic Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision.[15] On October 31, 2005, Iowa's Supreme Court upheld mass re-enfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following their conviction. Except for Maine and Vermont, every state prohibits felons from voting while in prison.[15] Iowa Governor Terry Edward Branstad reversed Vilsack's executive order.[17]

As of 2010, all the various state felony disenfranchisement laws added together block an estimated 5.9 million Americans from voting, up from 1.2 million in 1976.[18]

Constitutionality

Unlike most other laws that burden the right of citizens to vote based on some form of social status, felony disenfranchisement laws have been held to be constitutional. In Richardson v. Ramirez, the United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of felon disenfranchisement statutes, finding that the practice did not deny equal protection to disenfranchised voters. The Court looked to Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which proclaims that States which deny the vote to male citizens, except on the basis of "participation of rebellion, or other crime", will suffer a reduction in representation. Based on this language, the Court found that this amounted to an "affirmative sanction" of the practice of felon disenfranchisement, and the 14th Amendment could not prohibit in one section that which is expressly authorized in another. However, many critics argue that Section 2 of the 14th Amendment merely allows, but does not represent an endorsement of, felony disenfranchisement statutes as constitutional in light of the equal protection clause and is limited only to the issue of reduced representation. The Court did rule, however, in Hunter v. Underwood 471 U.S. 222, 232 (1985) that a state's felony disenfranchisement provision will violate Equal Protection if it can be demonstrated that the provision, as enacted, had "both [an] impermissible racial motivation and racially discriminatory impact." A felony disenfranchisement law, which on its face is indiscriminate in nature, cannot be invalidated by the Supreme Court unless its enforcement is proven to racially discriminate and to have been enacted with racially discriminatory animus.

Classifications

Restoration of voting rights for people who are ex-offenders varies across the United States. Primary classification of voting rights include:

Unrestricted

Maine[19] and Vermont[20] are the only states with unrestricted voting rights for people who are felons. Both states allow the person to vote during incarceration, via absentee ballot and after terms of conviction end.

Ends after release

In thirteen states and the District of Columbia, disenfranchisement ends after incarceration is complete.

Ends after parole

In four states, disenfranchisement ends after incarceration and parole (if any) is complete.

Ends after probation

Twenty states require not only that incarceration/parole if any are complete but also that any probation sentence (which is often an alternative to incarceration) is complete.

Circumstantial

Eight states have laws that vary with the detail of the crime. These laws restore voting rights to some offendors on the completion of incarceration, parole, and probation. Other offendors must make an individual petition that could be denied.

  • Alabama – A person convicted of a felony loses their right to vote if the felony involves moral turpitude. There is no list of which crimes involve moral turpitude, but the state Attorney General and courts have decided for individual crimes. For instance, drug possession does not involve moral turpitude, and distributing drugs does. If a convicted person loses the right to vote, they can petition to have it restored by a pardon or by a certificate of eligibility.[58][59][60][61] A certificate of eligibility cannot be issued to a person convicted of the following crimes:[62]
    • Impeachment, murder, rape (any degree)
    • Sodomy (any degree), sexual abuse (any degree)
    • Incest, sexual torture
    • Enticing a child to enter a vehicle for immoral purposes
    • Soliciting a child by computer
    • Production of obscene matter involving a minor
    • Production of obscene matter
    • Parents or guardians permitting children to engage in obscene matter
    • Possession of obscene matter
    • Possession with intent to distribute child pornography
    • Treason
  • Arizona. Rights are restored to first time felony offenders. Others must petition. [63][64]
  • Delaware – Depending on the crime, a person convicted of a felony either regains the right to vote after completion of their sentence or cannot regain the right to vote except through a pardon.[65] [66] The following crimes require a pardon:[65]
    • Murder or manslaughter (except vehicular homicide)
    • An offense against public administration involving bribery or improper influence or abuse of office, or any like offense under the laws of another US jurisdiction
    • Any felony constituting a sexual offense, or any like offense under the laws of another US jurisdiction
  • Mississippi – A person loses suffrage if they commit any of a list of crimes enumerated in the state constitution. The list is given below. Suffrage can be restored to an individual by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature. The crimes that disqualify a person from voting are given in Section 241 of the state constitution as:[67]
    • murder
    • rape
    • bribery
    • theft
    • arson
    • obtaining money or goods under false pretense
    • perjury
    • forgery
    • embezzlement
    • bigamy
  • Nevada First time and non-violent offenders all others may, "petition a court of competent jurisdiction for an order granting the restoration of his or her civil rights"[68]
  • Tennessee – A person who is convicted of certain felonies may not regain their voting rights except through pardon. These include: murder, rape, treason, and voting fraud. For a person convicted of a lesser felony, disenfranchisement ends after terms of incarceration, completion of parole, and completion of probation. In addition, the person must pay "Any court order restitution paid; current in the payment of any child support obligations; and/or Any court ordered court costs paid". The ex-offender must then either obtain a court order restoring their right to vote or complete the certificate of restoration of voting rights.[69]
  • Virginia[70] – As of May 29, 2013, it is a policy of the governor that a person convicted of a non-violent felony regains voting rights after the end of their incarceration, parole, and probation. Offendors with "violent/more serious" felonies must appeal to the governor five years after the end of their sentence. Before appealing, they must satisfy several conditions:
    • "Free from any sentence served or supervised probation and parole for a minimum of two years for a non-violent offense or five years for a violent felony or drug distribution, drug manufacturing offense, any crimes against a minor, or an election law offense."
    • "Has paid all court costs, fines, penalties and restitution and have no felony or misdemeanor charges pending; not have had a DWI in the five years immediately preceding the application."
    • Not have any misdemeanor convictions and/or pending criminal charges 2 years preceding the application for non-violent felonies or five years for a violent felony or drug distribution, drug manufacturing offense, any crimes against a minor, or an election law offense."
  • Wyoming – A person convicted of a felony can, after serving the full sentence including any probation and parole, apply to the state governor to have suffrage restored. Since July 1, 2003 there is an additional procedure for first-time, non-violent offendors to restore their right to vote. A first-time offendor of a felony may apply to the state parole board five years after completion of terms of incarceration, completion of parole and completion of probation. It is then up to the discretion of the parole board if rights are reinstated.[71][72]
Individual petitions required

Three states require individual petition for all offenses.

  • Florida – Voting rights are restored by the Florida Board of Executive Clemency. Less serious crimes do not require a hearing with the clemency board. In those cases, disfranchisement ends after it has been five years after completion of terms of incarceration, completion of parole and completion of probation. An application must be submitted to the court. For those with serious crimes, after seven years, the Florida Executive Clemency Board will decide whether or not to restore voting rights after receiving an application from the ex-offender.[73][74]
  • Kentucky – Only the governor can reinstate Civil Rights. The ex-offender must complete "Application for Restoration of Civil Rights". Then it is at the governor's discretion to restore voting rights.[77][78]

Felony conviction thresholds affected by inflation

Various property crimes can have absolute dollar amount thresholds. For example, in Massachusetts under penalties specified in MGL Chap. 266: Sec. 127,[79] a prosecution for malicious destruction of property can result in a felony conviction if the dollar amount of damage exceeds $250.[80]

Europe

The United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, prohibitions from voting are codified in section 3 and 3A of the Representation of the People Act 1983.[81] Excluded are incarcerated criminals[82] (including those sentenced by courts-martial, those unlawfully at large from such sentences, and those committed to psychiatric institutions as a result of legal process). Civil prisoners sentenced (for non-payment of fines, or contempt of court, for example), and those on remand unsentenced retain the right to vote.

The UK is subject to Europe-wide rules due to various treaties and agreements associated with their membership of the European Community. The Act does not apply to elections to the European Parliament. Following Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2) (2006),[83] in which the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled such a ban to be disproportionate, the policy was reviewed by the UK government. In 2005 the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, Lord Falconer of Thoroton, stated that it may result in some prisoners being able to vote,[84] and the review was still under way in 2010 following an "unprecedented warning" from the Council of Europe.[85] The UK government position was then that
"It remains the government's view that the right to vote goes to the essence of the offender's relationship with democratic society, and the removal of the right to vote in the case of some convicted prisoners can be a proportionate and proper response following conviction and imprisonment. The issue of voting rights for prisoners is one that the government takes very seriously and that remains under careful consideration."[85]

Parliament voted in favour of maintaining disenfranchisement of prisoners in 2011 in response to Government plans to introduce legislation. Since then the Government has repeatedly stated that prisoners will not be given the right to vote in spite of the ECHR ruling.[86]

In response to the ECHR ruling, Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice Chris Grayling produced a draft Voting Eligibility (Prisoners) Bill for discussion by a Joint Committee., incorporating two clear options for reform and one which would retain the blanket ban.

Ireland

For elections in the Republic of Ireland, there is no disenfranchisement based on criminal conviction, and prisoners remain on the electoral register at their pre-imprisonment address.[87] Prior to 2006, the grounds for postal voting did not include imprisonment, and hence those in prison on election day were in practice unable to vote, although those on temporary release could do so.[88][89] In 2000 the High Court ruled that this breached the Constitution, and the government drafted a bill extending postal voting to prisoners on remand or serving sentences of less than six months.[90] However, in 2001, the Supreme Court overturned the High Court ruling and the bill was withdrawn.[90][91] After the 2005 ECHR ruling in the Hirst case, the Electoral (Amendment) Act 2006 was passed to allow postal voting by all prisoners.[87][88][92]

Other European countries

Several European countries, including France, Germany (reinstated after for two to five years) and the Netherlands, permit disenfranchisment by special court order, such as in the case of Muhammad Bouyeri.

In Germany the law even calls on prisons to encourage prisoners to vote. Only those convicted of electoral fraud and crimes undermining the "democratic order", such as treason are barred from voting, while in prison.[93]

Other countries

Most democracies give convicted criminals the same voting rights as other citizens. In New Zealand, only persons convicted of electoral fraud or corruption lose their vote, for up to several years after release from prison.

In both China and Taiwan, the abrogation of political rights is a form of punishment used in sentencing, available only for some crimes or along with a sentence of death or imprisonment for life. Rights that are suspended in such a sentence include the right to vote and to take public office, as well as the rights to political expression, assembly, association, and protest.

Many countries allow inmates to vote. Examples include Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Netherlands, Norway, Peru, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Sweden, and Zimbabwe. In Australia, where voting is compulsory, the High Court of Australia in 2007 found that the Constitution enshrined a limited right to vote, which meant that citizens serving relatively short prison sentences cannot be barred from voting.

On 8 December 2008, Leung Kwok Hung (Long Hair), member of Hong Kong's popularly-elected Legislative Council (LegCo), and two prison inmates, successfully challenged disfranchisement provisions in the LegCo electoral laws. The court found blanket disfranchisement of prisoners to be in violation of Article 26 of the Basic Law and Article 21 of the Bill of Rights and the denial to persons in custody of access to polling stations as against the law. The government introduced a bill to repeal the provisions of the law disfranchising persons convicted of crimes (even those against the electoral system) as well as similar ones found in other electoral laws, and it made arrangements for polling stations to be set up at detention centres and prisons. LegCo passed the bill, and it took effect from 31 October 2009, even though no major elections were held until the middle of 2011.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Bowers, Melanie M; Preuhs, Robert R (September 2009). "Collateral Consequences of a Collateral Penalty: The Negative Effect of Felon Disenfranchisement Laws on the Political Participation of Nonfelons". Social Science Quarterly 90 (3): 722–743. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Siegel, Jonah A. (January 1, 2011). "Felon Disenfranchisement and the Fight for Universal Suffrage.". Social Work 56 (1): 89–91. 
  3. ↑ "LOSING THE VOTE: The Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States" (PDF). Human Rights Watch and the Sentencing Project. October 1998. 
  4. ↑ "pages-schall.blj.doc – Powered by Google Docs". docs.google.com. Retrieved 2010-10-31. 
  5. ↑ "Ex-cons Should Prove They Deserve the Right to Vote". Heritage.org. 2013-03-15. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  6. ↑ Manza, J.; Brooks, C., & Uggen, C. (2003). "Civil Death or Civil Rights? Public Attitudes towards Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States.". Conference Papers – American Sociological Association: 4. doi:10.1093/poq/nfh015. 
  7. ↑ Street, Paul (December 16, 2003). "Racist Felony Disenfranchisement". ZMag. 
  8. ↑ Palast, Greg (2004). The Best Democracy Money Can Buy. Plume. ISBN 0-452-28567-4. 
  9. ↑ Manza, Jeff; Uggen, Chris (2006). Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-514932-7. 
  10. ↑ Gabriel J. Chin (2007) Felon Disenfranchisement and Democracy in the Late Jim Crow Era, reviewing Manza & Uggen, 2006, Arizona Legal Studies Discussion Paper No. 31-07.
  11. ↑ Holding, Reynolds (November 1, 2008). "Tomes Magazine". Reason. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Tim Murphy. "Rick Santorum, Voting Rights Activist". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  13. ↑ "PolitiFact Florida | Super PAC attacks Rick Santorum for supporting felon voting rights". Politifact.com. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  14. ↑ "The NAACP 2008 Presidential Candidate Civil Rights Questionnaire". 2012election.procon.org. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 "Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. March 2011. 
  16. ↑ Steve Bousquet (2011-08-07). "State toughens policy of restoring rights to freed felons | Tampa Bay Times". Tampabay.com. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  17. ↑ Foley, Ryan J. "Iowa Felons' Voting Rights: Terry Brandstad Executive Order Disenfranchises Thousands". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  18. ↑ Pilkington, Ed (July 13, 2012). "Felon voting laws to disenfranchise historic number of Americans in 2012". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-08-07. 
  19. ↑ "Title 21-A, §112: Residence for voting purposes". Mainelegislature.org. 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  20. ↑ "The Vermont Statutes Online". Leg.state.vt.us. 2011-06-01. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  21. ↑ "Rule 3-500: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND QUALIFICATIONS, DC Regulations". Dcregs.org. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  22. ↑ "Hawai`i State Constitution - Article 2". Hawaii.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  23. ↑ "Illinois Constitution - Article III". Ilga.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  24. ↑ "Indiana Code 3-7-13". In.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  25. ↑ "General Laws: CHAPTER 51, Section 1". Malegislature.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  26. ↑ "Michigan Legislature - Section 168.758b". Legislature.mi.gov. 1975-07-25. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  27. ↑
  28. ↑ "Section 654:2-a Voters Confined in Penal Institutions". Gencourt.state.nh.us. 2003-09-01. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  29. ↑ "Chapter 12.1-33 : Rights of Convicts". Legis.nd.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  30. ↑ "Lawriter - ORC". Codes.ohio.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  31. ↑
  32. ↑ "Residents with Unique Voting Needs". Votespa.com. 2000-12-26. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  33. ↑ "Rules and Regulations Adopted by the Office of the Secretary of State : Rhode Island". Sos.ri.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  34. ↑ "Utah State Legislature". Le.utah.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  35. ↑ "CA Codes (elec:2200-2213)". Leginfo.ca.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  36. ↑
  37. ↑ "An Act Restoring Voting Rights Of Convicted Felons Who Are On Probation". Cga.ct.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  38. ↑ "Laws of New York". Public.leginfo.state.ny.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  39. ↑ "State of Alsaka : Department of Corrections". Correct.state.ak.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  40. ↑ "Arkansas Secretary of State: Voter Registration Information". Sos.arkansas.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  41. ↑
  42. ↑ "Idaho Constitution". Legislature.idaho.gov. 2004-07-29. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  43. ↑ "Article Five: Suffrage - Kansas Information, State Library of Kansas". Kslib.info. 2012-01-20. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  44. ↑ "RS 18:102". Legis.state.la.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  45. ↑
  46. ↑ "201.014, 2013 Minnesota Statutes". Revisor.leg.state.mn.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  47. ↑ "Section 115-133 Qualifications of voters". Moga.mo.gov. 2013-08-28. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  48. ↑ "Nebraska Legislature". Nebraskalegislature.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  49. ↑ "A596". Njleg.state.nj.us. 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  50. ↑ "New Mexico One Source of Law®". Public.nmcompcomm.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  51. ↑ "GS_163-55". Ncleg.net. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  52. ↑ "OSCN Found Document:Persons Entitled to Become Registered Voters". Oscn.net. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  53. ↑ "South Carolina Legislature Mobile". Scstatehouse.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  54. ↑ "State narrative: South Dakota". NACDL. Retrieved January 7, 2014. 
  55. ↑ "ELECTION CODE CHAPTER 11. QUALIFICATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS FOR VOTING". Statutes.legis.state.tx.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  56. ↑ "RCW 29A.08.520: Felony conviction — Provisional and permanent restoration of voting rights". Apps.leg.wa.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  57. ↑ "Wisconsin Legislature: 304.078(3)". Docs.legis.wisconsin.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  58. ↑ "Section 17-3-31". Alisondb.legislature.state.al.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  59. ↑ "Alabama Pardons Unit". Pardons.state.al.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  60. ↑ "State narrative: Alabama". NACDL Jurisdiction Profiles. NACDL. Retrieved 7 January 2014. 
  61. ↑ "Alabama ex-felon voting brochure 2010". ACLU of Alabama. 2010. Retrieved 7 January 2014. 
  62. ↑ "Pardons Unit". Pardons.state.al.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  63. ↑ "Format Document". Azleg.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  64. ↑ "13-912 - Restoration of civil rights for first offenders; exception". Azleg.state.az.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "The Delaware Constitution". Delcode.delaware.gov. 2010-07-07. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  66. ↑ "State narrative: Delaware". NACDL. Retrieved January 6, 2014. 
  67. ↑ "Constitution Of The State Of Mississippi". Sos.state.ms.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  68. ↑ "NRS: CHAPTER 213 - PARDONS AND PAROLES; REMISSIONS OF FINES AND COMMUTATIONS OF PUNISHMENTS". Leg.state.nv.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  69. ↑ "State of Tennessee Felony Conviction After May 18,1981". Tn.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  70. ↑ "VA Secretary of the Commonwealth: Clemency". Commonwealth.virginia.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  71. ↑ "Wyoming Statutes". Legisweb.state.wy.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  72. ↑ "State narrative: Wyoming". NACDL. Retrieved January 7, 2014. 
  73. ↑ "Statutes & Constitution :View Statutes : Online Sunshine". Leg.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  74. ↑ "Office of Executive Clemency". Fpc.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  75. ↑ "Executive Order Number Seventy". Governor.iowa.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  76. ↑ "Office of the Governor : Streamlined Application for Restoration of Citizenship Rights". Governor.iowa.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  77. ↑ "Section_145". Lrc.state.ky.us. 1955-11-08. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  78. ↑ "Division of Probate and Parole : Application for Restoration of Civil Rights". Corrections.ky.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  79. ↑ "General Laws: CHAPTER 266, Section 127". Mass.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  80. ↑ "Commonwealth v. Beale 434 Mass 1024 (2001)". FindLaw. 
  81. ↑ "Representation of the People Act 1983 (c. 2) – Statute Law Database". www.statutelaw.gov.uk. Retrieved 2010-10-31. 
  82. ↑ although not specifically felons; the distinction between felony and misdemeanour was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1967
  83. ↑ 42 EHHR 41
  84. ↑ "Convicts 'will not all get vote'". BBC News. October 6, 2005. Retrieved December 9, 2005. 
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Travis, Alan (March 9, 2010). "Prisoners must be allowed to vote, Council of Europe warns Britain". London: guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-10-30. 
  86. ↑ BBC News , 24 October 2012
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 "Prisoners' Rights". Ireland: Citizens Information Board. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 "Dáil Eireann - 05/Oct/2006 Electoral (Amendment) Bill 2006: Second Stage". Debates.oireachtas.ie. 2006-10-05. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  89. ↑ Quinn, Ben; Conor Sweeney (7 October 2005). "Europe court rules prisoners should be let vote in elections". Irish Independent. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Brady, Tom (15 December 2005). "Go-ahead for prisoners to cast vote at next election". Irish Independent. Retrieved 26 October 2012. 
  91. ↑ Breathnach -v- Ireland & anor; [2001] IESC 59: Judgments of Keane C.J. and Denham J.
  92. ↑ "Electoral (Amendment) Act 2006". Irishstatutebook.ie. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  93. ↑ "Losing the Vote," p. 17.

Bowers M, Preuhs R. Collateral Consequences of a Collateral Penalty: The Negative Effect of Felon Disenfranchisement Laws on the Political Participation of Nonfelons. Social Science Quarterly (Blackwell Publishing Limited) [serial online]. September 2009;90(3):722–743.

Goldman, D. S. (2004). The Modern-Day Literacy Test?: Felon Disenfranchisement and Race Discrimination. Stanford Law Review, (2), 611.

Hinchcliff, A. M. (2011). The "Other" Side of Richardson v. Ramirez: A Textual Challenge to Felon Disenfranchisement. Yale Law Journal, 121(1), 194–236.

Manza, J., Brooks, C., & Uggen, C. (2004). Public Attitudes toward Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States. The Public Opinion Quarterly, (2), 275.

Miles, T. J. (2004). Felon Disenfranchisement and Voter Turnout. The Journal Of Legal Studies, (1), 85.

Miller, B., & Spillane, J. (n.d). Civil death: An examination of ex-felon disenfranchisement and reintegration. Punishment & Society-International Journal Of Penology, 14(4), 402–428.

Siegel, J. A. (2011). Felon Disenfranchisement and the Fight for Universal Suffrage. Social Work, 56(1), 89–91.

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