Change blindness

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Example of images that can be used in a change blindness task

Change blindness is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus goes unnoticed by the observer. For example, an individual fails to notice a difference between two images that are identical except for one change. The reasons these changes usually remain unnoticed by the observer include obstructions in the visual field, eye movements, a change of location, or a lack of attention.[1] The brain regions that have been observed as active during change blindness are the prefrontal lobe, the fusiform face area, the pulvinar, the cerebellum, the inferior temporal gyrus, the parietal lobe, and the frontal lobe.[2] A common method of testing change blindness is the flicker paradigm, in which a blank screen is presented in the middle of an image and an altered form of that image that may distract the perceiver's attention.[3] Change blindness has become a highly researched topic due to newly discovered implications in practical applications such as eyewitness testimony and distractions while driving.

History of change blindness

First reports of change blindness

Outside of the domain of psychology, change blindness has been discussed since the late 1980s and early 1990s.[4] When film editing was introduced in movies, editors began to notice that changes to the background were not noticed by those watching the film.[4] In the domain of psychology, William James (1842–1910) was the first to mention the lack of ability to detect change in his book Principles of Psychology. (1890) [4] Change blindness was observed for many years by psychologists, philosophers, and even the general population before it was actually explored and developed into a prominent research area.

Early research on change blindness

Research on change blindness developed from investigation in other phenomena such as eye movements and working memory.[4] Although individuals have a very good memory as to whether or not they have seen an image, they are extremely impaired at recalling the smaller details in that image.[5][6] When we are visually stimulated with a complex picture, it is more likely that individuals only get a gist of an image and not the image in its entirety. The empirical study of change blindness began in the 1970s. McConkie conducted the first studies on change blindness involving changes in words and texts; in these studies, the changes were introduced while the observers carried out saccadic eye movements. Observers often failed to notice these changes.[7]

Beginning in the late 1980s, research began to reveal that poor change detection was not confined to the case of eye movements. Pashler (1988) showed that observers were quite poor at detecting changes introduced into arrays of letters while the display was flickered off and on, even if the offset was as brief as 67 milliseconds (although offsets briefer than that produced much more effective change detection). He concluded by noting how odd it was that people report having a "clear sense of apprehending the identities and locations of large numbers of objects in a scene" (p. 377), and that given this sense of introspection, it seemed surprising that people's ability to detect changes proved to be so poor.[4] In the mid-late 1990s and early 2000s, the study of change blindness gained immense popularity and resulted in a major expansion of research in this area. Throughout this period, visual images were more commonly used and researchers started to investigate the practical implications of change blindness. Additionally, the rise of neuroimaging made it possible to study and identify the areas of the brain that are activated during a change blindness experience.

Research in the 1990s and 2000s

Saccadic eye movements have been known to induce change blindness

Research in change blindness took significant steps when John Grimes (1996) began to use actual photographs in his change blindness studies.[8] This development in change blindness research was able to show the effects of change blindness in more realistic settings.[9] Additionally, further research stated that rather large changes will not be detected when they occur during saccadic movements of the eye. Another finding based on similar studies stated that a change was easily picked up on by participants when the eye was fixated on the point of change.[10] Therefore, the eye must be directly fixated on the area of change for it to be noticed. However, other research in the mid-1990s has indicated that individuals still have difficulty detecting change even when they are directly fixated on a particular scene. A study by Rensink, O’Regan, & Clarke demonstrated that change blindness can have an effect even if the eye was fixated on a scene. In this study, a picture was presented followed by a blank screen or “masking” stimulus, which was followed by the initial picture with a change. The masking stimulus almost acts like a saccadic movement of the eye which makes it significantly more difficult for individuals to detect the change.[9] This was a critical contribution to change blindness research because it demonstrated that a change can remain unnoticed with the smallest disruptions.

Research on change blindness proceeded one step further into practical applications of this phenomenon. For example, there does not have to be a masking stimulus in order for individuals to miss a change in a scene. Individuals often take significantly longer to notice certain changes if there are a few small, high contrast shapes that are temporarily splattered over a picture.[11] This method for testing change blindness is called “mudsplashes”.[11] This method is particularly relevant to individuals driving in a car when there is a visual obstruction on the windshield. This obstruction may impair an individual’s ability to detect a change in their environment which could result in severe negative consequences while driving.

Current research (2010–2012)

Change detection

Research indicates that detecting changes in a change blindness task is easier when items are holistically processed, such as faces. Individuals notice a change faster when required to detect changes in facial features than when required to detect changes in images of houses.[12] However, individuals are better at identifying the nature of the change in houses.[12]

Other researchers have discovered that mental processing in change blindness begins even before the change is presented. More specifically, there is increased brain activity in the parietal-occipital and occipital regions prior to the emergence of a change in a change blindness task.[13]

Researchers have also indicated there is a difference in brain activity between detecting a change and identifying change in an image. Detecting a change is associated with a higher ERP (Event-related potential) whereas identifying change is associated with an increased ERP before and after the change was presented.[14]

Additional research using fluctuations in ERPs (Event-related potentials) has observed that changes in pictures (change blindness) are represented in the brain, even without the perceiver’s conscious awareness of the change.[15]

Lucid dreaming

Lucid dreaming occurs when one realizes that the events experienced within a dream are bizarre or would not occur in one’s waking life.[16] As such, the inability to notice the bizarre nature of the dream has been coined as an example of change blindness, also known as individuals who are non-lucid dreamers. However, a recent study found that lucid dreamers did not perform better on a change blindness task than non-lucid dreamers.[16] Therefore, the relation between lucid dreamers and change blindness has been discredited to some degree.

Change blindness in teams

Another interesting area of research is the decreased susceptibility to change blindness when individuals are placed in teams. Although change blindness is still observed within teams, research has indicated that changes between images are noticed more when individuals work in teams as opposed to individually.[17] Both teamwork and communication assist teams in correctly identifying changes between images.[17]

Expertise and change blindness

Another recent study looked at the relation between expertise and change blindness. Physics experts were more likely to notice a change between two physics problems than novices.[18] It is hypothesized that experts are better at analyzing problems on a deeper level whereas novices employ a surface-level analysis. This research suggests that observing the phenomenon of change blindness may be conditional upon the context of the task.

Choice blindness

Cognitive psychologists expanded the study of Change Blindness into decision-making. In one study, they showed participants ten pairs of faces and asked them to choose which face was more attractive. For some pairs, the experimenter used sleight of hand to show participants a face they had NOT chosen. Only 26% of subjects noticed the mismatch between their choice of face and the different face they were shown instead. The experimenters tested pairs of faces that were either high in similarity or low in similarity, but the detection rate was no different between those conditions. Subjects were also asked to give reasons why they had chosen a face (although due to the sleight of hand they actually hadn't chosen it). Despite the mismatch, subjects gave responses that were comparable in emotionality, specificity, and certainty for faces they had or had not actually chosen.[19] Further research has showed that the failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome exists in consumer product choices [20] and in political attitudes.[21]

Change detection paradigms

Flicker paradigm

In this paradigm, an image and an altered image are switched back and forth with a blank screen in the middle.[3] This procedure is performed at a very high rate and observers are told to click a button as soon as they see the difference between the two images.[3] This method of studying change blindness has helped researchers discover two very important findings. The first finding is that it usually takes awhile for individuals to notice a change even though they are being instructed to search for a change.[3] In some cases, it can even take individuals over one minute of constant flickers to determine the location of the change. The second important finding is that changes towards the middle of a picture are noticed at a faster rate than changes on the side of a picture.[3] Although the flicker paradigm was first used in the late 1990s, it is still commonly used in current research on change blindness and has contributed to current knowledge on change blindness.

Forced choice detection paradigm

Individuals who are tested under the forced choice paradigm are only allowed to view the two pictures once before they make a choice.[9] Both images are also shown for the same amount of time.[9] The flicker paradigm and the forced choice detection paradigm are known as intentional change detection tasks, which means that the participants know they are trying to detect change. These studies have shown that even while participants are focusing their attention and searching for a change, the change may remain unnoticed.

Mudsplashes

Mudsplashes are small, high contrast shapes that are scattered over an image, but do not cover the area of the picture in which the change occurs. This mudsplash effect prevents individuals from noticing the change between the two pictures.[11] A practical application of this paradigm is that dangerous stimuli in a scene may not be noticed if there are slight obstructions in an individual's visual field. Previously, it has been stated that humans hold a very good internal representation of visual stimuli. Studies involving mudsplashes have shown that change blindness may occur because our internal representations of visual stimuli may be much worse than previous studies have shown.[11] Mudsplashes have not been used as frequently as the flicker or forced choice detection paradigms in change blindness research, but have yielded many significant and groundbreaking results.

Foreground-background segregation

The foreground-background segregation method for studying change blindness uses photographs of scenery with a distinct foreground and background. Researchers using this paradigm have found that individuals are usually able to recognize relatively small changes in the foreground of an image.[22] In addition, large changes to the colour of the background take significantly longer to detect.[22] This paradigm is critical to change blindness research because many previous studies have not examined the location of changes in the visual field.

Neuroanatomy of change blindness

Neuroimaging

MRI image

Various studies have used MRI’s (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to measure brain activity when individuals detect (or fail to detect) a change in the environment. When individuals detect a change, the neural networks of the parietal and right dorsolateral prefrontal lobe regions are strongly activated.[2][23] If individuals were instructed to detect changes in faces, the fusiform face area was also significantly activated. In addition, other structures such as the pulvinar, cerebellum, and inferior temporal gyrus also showed an increase in activation when individuals reported a change.[23] It has been proposed that the parietal and frontal cortex along with the cerebellum and pulvinar might be used to direct an organism’s attention to a change in the environment. A decrease of activation in these brain areas was observed if a change was not detected by the organism.[2] Furthermore, the neurological activation of these highlighted brain areas was correlated with an individual’s conscious awareness of change and not the physical change itself.[23]

Other studies using fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scanners have shown that when change is not consciously detected, there was a significant decrease in the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal lobe regions.[2] These results further the importance of the dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortext in the detection of visual change. In addition to fMRI studies, recent research has used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in order to inhibit areas of the brain while participants were instructed to try to detect the change between two images.[24] The results show that when the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is inhibited, individuals are significantly slower at detecting change.[24] The PPC is critical for encoding and maintaining visual images in short term working memory, which demonstrates the importance of the PPC in terms of detecting changes between images.[24] For a change to be detected, the information of the first picture needs to be held in working memory and compared to the second picture. If the PPC is inhibited, the area of the brain responsible for encoding visual images will not function properly. The information will not be encoded and will not be held in working memory and compared to the second picture, thus inducing change blindness.

Role of attention

The role of attention is critical for an organism’s ability to detect change. In order for an organism to detect change, visual stimulation must enter through eye and proceed through the visual stream in the brain. A study in 2004 demonstrated that if the superior colliculus (responsible for eye movements) of a monkey’s brain is electrically stimulated, there would be a significant decrease in reaction time to detect the change.[1] Therefore, it is critical for organisms to attend to the change in order for it to be detected. Organisms are only able to detect this change once the visual stimulation comes through the eye (its movements are controlled by the superior colliculus) and is subsequently processed through the visual stream.

Factors influencing change blindness

Age

Older individuals have been known to have more difficulty detecting changes

Age has been implicated as one of the factors which modulates the severity of change blindness. In a study conducted by Veiel et al. it was found that older individuals were slower to detect the changes in a change blindness experiment than were younger individuals.[25] This trend was also noticed by Caird et al., who found that drivers aged 65 and older were more prone to making incorrect decisions after a change blindness paradigm was used at an intersection, than were participants aged 18–64.[26]

Attention

Attention is another factor that has been implicated in change blindness. Shifts in attention decrease the severity of change blindness[27] and changes in the foreground are detected more readily than changes made to the background of an image, an effect of the attentional bias for foreground elements.[28]

Object presentation

Object presentation is the way in which objects appear and is a factor that determines the occurrence of change blindness. Change blindness can occur even without a delay between the original image and the altered image, but only if the change in the image forces the viewer to redefine the objects in the image.[29] Additionally, the appearance of a new object is more resistant to change blindness than a looming object, and both the appearance of a new object and the looming of an object are more resistant to change blindness than the receding of an object.[30] Furthermore, the appearance or onset of an object is more resistant to the occurrence of change blindness than the disappearance or offset of an object.[31]

Substance use

Substance use has been found to affect the detection biases on change detection tasks. If an individual was presented with two changes simultaneously, those that had a change related to the substance they use regularly reported using the substance more than those detecting the neutral stimuli. This indicates a relationship between substance use and change detection within a change blindness paradigm.[32] This bias for devoting more attention to the drug-relevant stimuli is also observed with problem drinkers. Individuals who have a more severe drinking problem are quicker to detect changes in alcohol-related stimuli then in neutral stimuli.[33]

Change blindness in other senses

In addition to change blindness induced by changes in visual images, change blindness also exists for the other senses:

  • Change deafness - change blindness for auditory information.
  • Olfactory - human is constantly in a state of change blindness due to the poor spatial and temporal resolutions with which scents are detected.[34]
  • Somatosensory - change blindness for tactile stimuli has been observed using the mudsplash paradigm for change blindness.[35]

Practical implications

The phenomenon of change blindness has practical implications in the following areas:

Eyewitness testimony

Research in change blindness has uncovered the possibility of inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony.[36] In many cases, witnesses are rarely able to detect a change in the criminal's identity unless first intending to remember the incident in question.[36] This inability to detect a change in identity can lead to inaccuracy in identifying criminals, mistaken eyewitness identification, and wrongful conviction.[37] Therefore, eyewitness testimonies should be handled with caution in court in order to avoid any of these negative consequences.[37]

Driving ability

Traffic collision

Older drivers make more incorrect decisions than younger drivers when faced with a change in the scene at an intersection.[26] This can be attributed to the fact that older individuals notice change at a slower rate compared to younger individuals.[26] In addition, the location and relevance of changes have an effect on what is noticed while driving.[38] The reaction time to changes in the driver's peripherals is much slower than the reaction time to changes that occur towards the center of the driver's visual field.[38] Furthermore, drivers are also able to recognize more relevant changes as opposed to irrelevant ones.[38] Research on the effects of change blindness while driving could provide insight into potential explanations of why car accidents occur.

Military

Military command and control personnel who monitor multiple displays have a delayed time to accurately identify changes due to the necessity of verifying the changes, as well as the effective 'guessing' on some trials.[39] Due to the fact that control personal have delayed reaction because of change blindness, an interface design of computer work stations may be extremely beneficial to increase the reaction time and accuracy.[39]

Change blindness blindness

Change blindness blindness is defined as a misplaced confidence in one’s ability to correctly identify visual changes.[40] People are fairly confident in their ability to detect a change, but most people exhibit poor performance on a change blindness task.

Factors affecting change blindness blindness

  • Perceived Success - A higher perception of success from previous experience inflates the individual’s confidence for success in future experiences.[41]
  • Search Time - A longer time spent looking for the visual change creates the impression of poor performance on the task.[41] In other words, a shorter time in identifying a visual change creates the impression of good performance and thus the individual will be overconfident in this ability.

Spotlight effect and change blindness blindness

The spotlight effect is a social phenomenon that is defined as an overestimation of the ability of others to notice us.[42] A seemingly obvious change such as another individual changing a sweater during a memory task is rarely noticed.[42] However, the individuals switching the sweater tend to overestimate the ability of the test writers to notice the change in sweaters.[42] In the spotlight effect, this poor performance is a result of the overestimation of others’ ability to notice us whereas in change blindness blindness it is the overestimation of others’ ability to notice the sweater change. In other words, it is the distinction between noticing differences on a person and noticing differences between any images.

See also

Further reading

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cavanaugh, J., & Wurtz, R. H. (2004). Subcortical modulation of attention counters change blindness. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(50), 11236-11243.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Beck, D. M., Rees, G., Frith, C. D., & Lavie, N. (2001). Neural correlates of change detection and change blindness. Nature Neuroscience, 4(6), 645-650.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Rensink,R.A., O’Regan, J.K., &Clark, J.J. (1997). To see or not to see:The need for attention to perceive changes in scenes. Psychological Science, 8, 368–373
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Simons, D.J., & Levin, D.T. (1997). Change blindness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1(7),261–267
  5. ↑ Nickerson, R.S., & Adams, M.J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 287–307
  6. ↑ Shepard, R.N. (1967). Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 156–163
  7. ↑ McConkie, G.W., &Rayner, K. (1976). Identifying the span of the effective stimulus in reading: Literature review and theories of reading. In H. Singer & R.B. Ruddell (Eds), Theoretical Land processes of reading (2nd ed., pp. 137–162)
  8. ↑ Grimes, J. (1996). On the failure to detect changes in scenes across saccades. In K. Akins (Ed.),(Vancouver studies in cognitive science: Vol. 2: Perception, (pp. 89–110). New York: Oxford University Press
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Simons, D.J. (2000). Current Approaches to Change Blindness. Visual Cognition, 7 (1/2/3), 1-15
  10. ↑ Henderson, J.M. (1997). Transsaccadic memory and integration during real-world object perception. Psychological Science, 8(1), 51–55
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 O’Regan, J.K., Rensink, R.A., & Clark, J.J. (1999). Change-blindness as a result of “mudsplashes”. Nature, 398, 34
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Wilford, M.M. & Wells, G.L. (2010). Does Facial Processing Prioritize Change Detection?: Change Blindness Illustrates Costs and Benefits of Holistic Processing. Psychological Science. 21(11). 1611-1615. doi:10.2307/41062421
  13. ↑ Alvaro, D., Pazo-Alvarez, P., Capilla, A., & Amenedo, E. (2012). Oscillatory brain activity in the time frequency domain associated to change blindness and change detection awareness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 24(2). 337-350. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00073
  14. ↑ Busch, N.A, Fruend, I., & Herrmann, C.S. (2010). Electrophysiological evidence for different types of change detection and change blindness. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 22(8). 1852-1869. Retrieved from http://cognet.mit.edu.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/
  15. ↑ Lyyra, P., Wikgren, J., & Astikainen, P. (2010). Event-related potentials reveal rapid registration of features of infrequent changes during change blindness. Behavioral and Brain Functions. 6(12). 12. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-12
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Blagrove, M., & Wilkinson, A. (2010). Lucid dreaming frequency and change blindness performance. Dreaming. 20(2). 130-135. doi:10.1037/a0019248
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Tollner-Burngasser, A., Riley, M.A., & Nelson, W.T. (2010). Individual and team susceptibility to change blindness. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 81(10). 935-943. doi:10.3357/ASEM.2809.2010
  18. ↑ Feil, A., & Mestre, J.P. (2010). Change blindness as a means of studying expertise in physics. Journal of the Learning Sciences. 19(4). 480-505. doi:10.1080/10508406.2010.505139
  19. ↑ Johansson, P., Hall, L., Sikström, S., & Olsson, A. (2005). Failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome in a simple decision task. Science, 310(5745), 116-119.
  20. ↑ Hall, L., Johansson, P., Tärning, B., Sikström, S., & Deutgen, T. (2010). Magic at the marketplace: Choice blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea. Cognition, 117(1), 54-61.
  21. ↑ Hall, L., Johansson, P., & Strandberg, T. (2012). Lifting the veil of morality: Choice blindness and attitude reversals on a self-transforming survey. PloS one, 7(9), e45457.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Mazza, V., Turatto, M., & Umiltà, C. (2005). Foreground-background segmentation and attention: A change blindness study. Psychological Research, 69(3), 201-10
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Pessoa, L., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2004). Neural correlates of change detection and change blindness in a working memory task. Cerebral Cortex, 14(5), 511-520.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Tseng, P., Hsu, T., Muggleton, N. G., Tzeng, O. J. L., Hung, D. L., & Juan, C. (2010). Posterior parietal cortex mediates encoding and maintenance processes in change blindness. Neuropsychologia, 48(4), 1063-1070
  25. ↑ Veiel LL, Storandt M, Abrams RA.(2006). Visual search for change in older adults. Psychology and Aging 21(4), 754-762.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Caird JK, Edwards CJ, Creaser JI, Horrey WJ.(2005). Older driver failures of attention at intersections: using change blindness methods to assess turn decision accuracy. Human Factors 47(2), 235-249.
  27. ↑ Smith DT, Schenk T. (2008). Reflexive attention attenuates change blindness (but only briefly). Attention, Perception and Psychophysics 70(3), 489-495.
  28. ↑ Veronica M, Massimo T, Carlo U.(2005). Foreground-background segmentation and attention: a change blindness study. Psychological Research 69, 201-210.
  29. ↑ Landman R, Spekreijse H, Lamme VAF. (2004). The role of figure-ground segregation in change blindness. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 11(2), 254-261.
  30. ↑ Cole GG, Liversedge SP.(2006). Change blindness and the primacy of object appearance. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 13(4), 588-593.
  31. ↑ Cole GG, Kuhn G, Liversedge SP.(2007). Onset of illusory figures attenuates change blindness. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 14(5), 939-943.
  32. ↑ Jones BC, Jones BT, Blundell L, Bruce G.(2002). Social users of alcohol and cannabis who detect substance-related changes in a change blindness paradigm report higher levels of use than those detecting substance-neutral changes. Psychopharmacology 165, 93-96.
  33. ↑ Jones BT, Bruce G, Livingstone S, Reed E.(2006). Alcohol-related attentional bias in problem drinkers with the flicker change blindness paradigm. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 20(2), 171-177.
  34. ↑ Sela L, Sobel N.(2010). Human olfaction: a constant state of change-blindness. Exp Brain Res 205, 13-29.
  35. ↑ Gallace A, Tan HZ, Spence C.(2007).Do "mudsplashes" induce tactile change blindness? Attention, Perception and Psychophysics 69(4), 477-486.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Davies G, Hine S.(2007). Change blindness and eyewitness testimony. The Journal of Psychology 141(4), 423-434.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Nelson, K. J., Laney, C., Fowler, N. B., Knowles, E. D., Davis, D., & Loftus, E. F. (2011). Change blindness can cause mistaken eyewitness identification. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 16(1), 62-74
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Galpin, A., Underwood, G., & Crundall, D. (2009). Change blindness in driving scenes. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 12(2), 179-185
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 DiVita J, Obermayer R, Nugent W, Linville JM.(2004). Verification of change blindness phenomenon while managing critical events on a combat information display. Human Factors 46(2), 205-218.
  40. ↑ Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W., & Anderson, M.C. (2009). Memory. London: Psychology Press.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Loussouarn, A., Gabriel, D., & Proust, J. (2011). Exploring the informational sources of metaperception: The case of change blindness blindness. From Dreams to Psychosis: A European Science Foundation. 20(4). 1489-1501. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.07.001
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Lawson, T.J. (2010). The social spotlight increases blindness to change blindness. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 32(4). 360-368. doi:10.1080/01973533.2010.519200

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