Cadmium telluride photovoltaics

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A CdTe photovoltaic array

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV) technology that is based on the use of cadmium telluride thin film, a semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity.[1] Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film photovoltaic technology to surpass crystalline silicon PV in cheapness for a significant portion of the PV market, namely in multi-kilowatt systems.[1][2][3] CdTe PV is considered the ecologically leading technology as it provides a solution to key ecological issues including climate change, energy security, and water scarcity.[4] It is also considered the most eco-efficient current PV technology when comparing a range of application scenarios e.g. commercial rooftop applications or large scale ground mount applications.[5] On a life cycle basis, CdTe PV has the smallest carbon footprint, lowest water use, and fastest energy payback time of all solar technologies.[6][7][8] A fast energy payback time enables PV to scale with faster carbon reductions without causing short-term energy deficits.

Background

Cross-section of a CdTe thin film solar cell.

Since inception, the dominant solar cell technology in the marketplace has been based on wafers of crystalline silicon. During the same period, the idea of developing alternative, lower cost PV technologies led to the consideration of thin films and concentrators. Thin films are based on using thinner semiconductor layers to absorb and convert sunlight; concentrators, on the idea of replacing expensive semiconductors with lenses or mirrors. Both reduce cost, in theory, by reducing the use of semiconductor material. However, both faced critical challenges.

The first thin film technology to be extensively developed and manufactured was amorphous silicon. However, this technology suffers from low efficiencies and slow deposition rates (leading to high capital costs) and has not become a market leader. Instead, the PV market has grown to almost 4 gigawatts with wafer-based crystalline silicon comprising almost 90% of sales.[9] Installation trails production by a slight time lag, and the same source estimates about 3 gigawatts were installed in 2007.

During this period, two other thin films continued in development (cadmium telluride, and copper indium diselenide or CIS-alloys). The latter is beginning to be produced in start-up volumes of 1–30 megawatts per year by individual companies and remains an unproven, but promising market competitor due to very high, small-area cell efficiencies approaching 20% in the laboratory.[10] CdTe cell efficiency is also approaching 20% in the laboratory with a world record of 19.6% as of 2013.[11]

History

40-MW CdTe PV Array, Waldpolenz, Germany

Research in CdTe dates back to the 1950s,[12][13][14][15][16][17] because it was quickly identified as having a band gap (about 1.5 eV) almost perfectly matched to the distribution of photons in the solar spectrum in terms of optimal conversion to electricity. A simple heterojunction design evolved in which p-type CdTe was matched with n-type cadmium sulfide (CdS). The cell was completed by adding top and bottom contacts. Early leaders in CdS/CdTe cell efficiencies were GE in the 1960s,[18] and then Kodak, Monosolar, Matsushita, and AMETEK.

By 1981, Kodak used close spaced sublimation (CSS) and made the first 10% cells and first multi-cell devices (12 cells, 8% efficiency, 30 cm2).[19] Monosolar[20] and AMETEK[21] used electrodeposition, a popular early method. Matsushita started with screen printing but shifted in the 1990s to CSS. Cells of about 10% sunlight-to-electricity efficiency were being made by the early 1980s at Kodak, Matsushita, Monosolar, and Ametek.[22]

An important step forward occurred when cells were being scaled-up in size to make larger area products called modules. These products require higher currents than small cells and it was found that an additional layer, called a transparent conducting oxide (TCO), could facilitate the movement of current across the top of the cell (instead of a metal grid). One such TCO, tin oxide, was already being applied to glass for other uses (thermally reflective windows). Made more conductive for PV, tin oxide became and remains the norm in CdTe PV modules.

Professor Ting L. Chu of Southern Methodist University and subsequently of University of South Florida, Tampa, made significant contributions to moving the efficiency of CdTe cells to above 15% in 1992, a critical level of success in terms of potential commercial competitiveness.[22] This was done when he added an intervening or buffer layer to the TCO/CdS/CdTe stack and then thinned the CdS to allow more light through. Chu used resistive tin oxide as the buffer layer and then thinned the CdS from several micrometres to under half a micrometre in thickness. Thick CdS, as it was used in prior devices, blocked about 5 mA/cm2 of light, or about 20% of the light usable by a CdTe device. By removing this loss while maintaining the other properties of the device, Chu reached 15% efficiency in 1991, the first thin film to do so, as verified at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL).[22] Chu used CSS for depositing the CdTe. For his achievements in taking CdTe from its status as “also-ran” to a primary candidate for commercialization, some think of Ting L. Chu as the key technologist in the history of CdTe development.

In the early 1990s, another set of entrants were active in CdTe commercial development, but with mixed results.[22] A short-lived company, Golden Photon replaced Photon Energy, when it was bought by the Coors Company in 1992. Golden Photon, led by Scot Albright and John Jordan, actually held the record for a short period for the best CdTe module measured at NREL at 7.7% using a spray deposition technique. Meanwhile Matsushita, BP Solar, and Solar Cells Inc. were active. Matsushita claimed an 11% module efficiency using CSS and then dropped out of the technology. A similar efficiency and fate eventually occurred at BP Solar. BP used electrodeposition inherited from Monosolar by a circuitous route when it purchased SOHIO. SOHIO had previously bought Monosolar. BP Solar however never made a complete commitment to their CdTe technology despite its achievements and dropped it in the early 2000s. Another ineffective corporate evolution occurred at a European entrant, Antec. Founded by CdTe pioneer Dieter Bonnet (who made cells in the 1960s), Antec was able to make about 7%-efficient modules, but went bankrupt when it started producing commercially during a short, sharp downturn in the market in 2002. Purchased from bankruptcy, it never regained the technical traction needed to make further progress. However, as of 2008 Antec does make and sell CdTe PV modules.

There are a number of start-ups in CdTe today: Q-Cells' Calyxo (Germany), GE’s PrimeStar Solar (Arvada, Colorado), Arendi (Italy), and Abound Solar (Fort Collins, Colorado). Including Antec, their total production represents less than 70 megawatts per year.[23] In February 2009, Roth & Rau announced to develop turnkey CdTe production lines and launch the business before end of 2009.[24]

There has been a lot of research on fabricating CdTe cells on flexible substrate since 1999. In 2009, EMPA, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, demonstrated a 12.4% efficient solar cell on flexible polyimide substrate.[25]

SCI and First Solar

The major commercial success to emerge from the turmoil of the 1990s was Solar Cells Incorporated (SCI). Founded in 1999 as an outgrowth of a prior company, Glasstech Solar (founded 1984), led by inventor/entrepreneur Harold McMaster,[26] it switched from amorphous silicon to CdTe as a better solution to the higher-cost crystalline silicon PV. McMaster championed CdTe for its high-rate, high-throughput processing. Technical leadership came from a team that included Jim Nolan, Rick Powell, Jim Foote, and Peter Meyers, with consulting help from Ting Chu and Al Compaan (U. Toledo). SCI started with an adaptation of the CSS method then shifted to a vapor transport approach, inspired by Powell.[27] In February 1999, McMaster sold the company to True North Partners, an investment arm of the Walton family, owners of Wal-Mart.[28] John T. Walton joined the Board of the new company, and Mike Ahearn of True North became the CEO of the newly minted First Solar.

In its early years First Solar suffered setbacks, and initial module efficiencies were modest, about 7%. Commercial product became available in 2002. But production did not reach 25 megawatts until 2005.[29] The company built an additional line in Perrysburg, Ohio, then four lines in Germany, supported by the then substantial German production incentives (about 50% of capital costs).[30] In 2006 First Solar reached 75 MW of annual production[29] and announced a further 16 lines in Malaysia. The more recently announced lines have been operational ahead of schedule.[31] As of 2013, First Solar has approximately 2 GW in annual production capacity and over 8 GW installed worldwide.[32] First Solar is the world’s largest thin-film PV solar module manufacturer and one of the largest PV module manufacturers in the world.[33]

GE announced plans to spend $600 million on a new plant and enter this market [34]

Technology

Cell efficiency

Solar Cell Efficiencies

Recently, First Solar, Inc. and GE/Primestar have made a series of advances in research cell efficiencies with the most recent record being made in 2013 at 19.6%.[35] In 2013, the record module efficiency was 16.1%. First Solar’s record-breaking module efficiency marks a substantial increase from the 14.4% record of the previous year.[36] These achievements demonstrate that CdTe’s efficiency potential is far from saturated. By 2017, average production line module efficiency for CdTe PV is projected to be 17%.[37] Since CdTe has the optimal band gap for single-junction devices, it may be expected that efficiencies close to exceeding 20% (such as already shown in CIS alloys) should be achievable in practical CdTe cells.[38]

Process optimization

Process optimization allows greater throughput at smaller cost. Typical improvements are broader substrates (since capital costs scale sublinearly, and installation costs can be reduced), thinner layers (to save material, electricity, and throughput time), and better material utilization (to save material and cleaning costs). Making components rather than buying them is also a traditional way for great manufacturers to save costs. Today’s CdTe module costs are about $72/m2 (normalized to a square meter).[39] Costs are expected to reduce to $65/m2.

Thus a practical, long-term (10–year) goal for CdTe modules resulting from combining cost and efficiency goals would be $65 per 150 watts, or about $0.4 per watt.[40] With commodity-like margins and combined with balance-of-system (BOS) costs, installed systems near $1.5/W seem achievable. With Southern California sunlight, this would be in the 6 to 8 US cents per kWh range (e.g., based on economic and other assumptions used in algorithms such as in the United States Department of Energy and NREL's Solar Advisory Model).[41]

Performance advantage

Although typical crystalline silicon modules have an efficiency of 13%-20% and CdTe modules have an efficiency of approximately 13%; recent modules produced at First Solar and measured by NREL have shown CdTe modules with efficiencies at 16.1%. Module efficiencies are obtained in laboratories at standard testing temperatures of 25°C, however in the field modules are often exposed to much higher temperatures. CdTe PV modules have a proven performance advantage over conventional silicon modules in high temperature climates due to CdTe’s low temperature coefficient.[42][43][44] Although all PV semiconductors experience performance losses at temperatures above 25°C,CdTe PV modules experience half the reduction of crystalline silicon modules, resulting in an increased annual energy output of 5-9%.[45]

Solar tracking

Almost all thin film photovoltaic module systems to-date have been non-solar tracking, because the output of modules has been too low to offset tracker capital and operating costs. But relatively inexpensive single-axis tracking systems can add 25% output per installed watt.[41] In addition, depending on the Tracker Energy Gain, the overall eco-efficiency of the PV system can be enhanced by lowering both system costs and environmental impacts.[46] This is climate-dependent. Tracking also produces a smoother output plateau around midday, allowing afternoon peaks to be met.

Cadmium

Cadmium, a heavy metal considered a hazardous substance, is a waste byproduct of zinc refining therefore its production does not depend on PV market demand. CdTe PV modules provide a beneficial and safe use for cadmium that would otherwise be stored for future use or disposed of in landfills as hazardous waste. Mining byproducts can be converted into a stable CdTe compound and safely encapsulated inside CdTe PV solar modules that produce clean energy for 25+ years. A large growth in the CdTe PV sector has the potential to actually reduce, rather than increase, global cadmium emissions by displacing coal and oil power generation.[47]

Safety

In a validating test, Vasilis Fthenakis of the Brookhaven National Laboratory showed that the glass plates surrounding CdTe material sandwiched between them (as they are in all commercial modules) seal during a fire and do not allow any cadmium release.[48][49] All other uses and exposures related to cadmium are minor and similar in kind and magnitude to exposures from other materials in the broader PV value chain, e.g., to toxic gases, lead solder, or solvents (most of which are not used in CdTe manufacturing).[50][51]

Tellurium supply

Questions have been raised over the scalability of CdTe PV and its potential of being constrained by the supply of tellurium. Tellurium production and reserves estimations are subject to a considerable degree of uncertainty and vary considerably. Tellurium (Te) is an element that is primarily used as a machining additive to steel. The existing supply is almost exclusively obtained by recovering Te as a by-product of copper refining. Only a small amount, estimated to be about 800 metric tons [52] per year, is available. According to USGS, global tellurium production in 2007 was 135 metric tons.[53] Most of it comes as a by-product of copper, with smaller byproduct amounts from lead and gold. One gigawatt (GW) of CdTe PV modules would require about 93 metric tons (at current efficiencies and thicknesses),[54] Through improved material efficiency and increased PV recycling systems, the CdTe PV industry has the potential to fully rely on tellurium from recycled end-of-life modules by 2038.[55] In the last decade, new supplies of tellurium-rich ores have been located, e.g., in Xinju, China[56] as well as in Mexico and Sweden.[57] Since CdTe is now regarded as an important technology in terms of PV’s future impact on global energy and environment, the issue of tellurium availability is significant. Recently, researchers have added an unusual twist – astrophysicists identify tellurium as the most abundant element in the universe with an atomic number over 40.[58][59] This surpasses, e.g., heavier materials like tin, bismuth, and lead, which are common. Researchers have shown that well-known undersea ridges (which are now being evaluated for their economic recoverability) are rich in tellurium and by themselves could supply more tellurium than we could ever use for all of our global energy.[59][60] It is not yet known that this undersea tellurium is recoverable, nor whether there is much more tellurium elsewhere that can be recovered.

Recycling

With over 100 GW of solar PV modules installed worldwide, recycling is important to the whole PV sector in order to maximize resource recovery and manage environmentally sensitive materials (e.g. lead, selenium, and cadmium compounds) which are common in the industry. First Solar established the first global and comprehensive recycling program in the PV industry. Its proven and scalable recycling facilities are operational at each of First Solar’s manufacturing plants and recover up to 95% of semiconductor material for reuse in new modules and 90% of glass for reuse in new glass products.[61]

Market viability

Success of cadmium telluride PV has been due to the low cost achievable with the CdTe technology, made possible by combining adequate efficiency with lower module area costs. Direct manufacturing cost for CdTe PV modules reached $0.57 per watt in 2013,[62] and capital cost per new watt of capacity is near $0.9 per watt (including land and buildings).[63]

Notable systems

Utility-scale CdTe PV solutions can deliver solar electricity that is competitive with peaking fossil fuel generation sources depending on irradiance levels, interest rates, and other factors such as development costs.[64] Recent installations of large CdTe PV systems by First Solar confirm the competitiveness of CdTe PV with other forms of solar energy and how close it is to being competitive with conventional natural gas peakers:

  1. First Solar’s 290 MW Agua Caliente project in Arizona is the world’s largest PV plant in operation. Agua Caliente features First Solar’s plant control, forecasting and energy scheduling capabilities which actively contribute to grid reliability and stability.[65]
  2. The 550-MW Topaz project currently under construction in California represents the world’s largest renewable energy bond.[66]
  3. First Solar’ 13 MW project in Dubai, operated by the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority, is the largest PV power plant in the region.[66]
  4. A 40MW system installed by juwi group in Waldpolenz Solar Park, Germany: at the time of its announcement, it was both the largest planned and lowest cost PV system in the world. The price of 3.25 euros translated then (when the euro was equal to US$1.3) to $4.2/watt, much lower than any other known system.[67]
  5. A 21-megawatt system installed in Blythe, CA, where the California Public Utilities Commission accepted a 12 US cent per kWh power purchase agreement with First Solar (after the application of all incentives).[68] Defined in California as the "Market Referent Price," this is the price the PUC will pay for any daytime peaking power source, e.g., natural gas. Although PV systems are intermittent and not dispatchable the way natural gas is, natural gas generators have an ongoing fuel price risk that PV does not have.
  6. A contract for two megawatts of rooftop installations with Southern California Edison, where the SCE program is designed to install 250 megawatts at a total cost of $875M (averaging $3.5/watt), after incentives.[69]

See also

References and notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Publications, Presentations, and News Database: Cadmium Telluride". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 
  2. ↑ K. Zweibel, J. Mason, V. Fthenakis, "A Solar Grand Plan", Scientific American, Jan 2008. CdTe PV is the cheapest example of PV technologies and prices are about 16¢/kWh with US Southwest sunlight.
  3. ↑ Further mention of cost competitiveness: "Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology", Scientific American, April 2008.
  4. ↑ Mariska de Wild-Scholten and Martin Schottler (24 April 2009). "Solar as an environmental product: Thin-film modules – production processes and their environmental assessment". Presented at Thin Film Industry Forum. ECN and M+W Zander FE GmbH. 
  5. ↑ Seitz et al. (November 2013). "Ökoeffizienzanalyse von Photovoltaikmodulen". Bifa text (Bifa Umweltinstitut) 62. ISSN 0944-5935. 
  6. ↑ Peng et al. (2013). "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19: 255–274. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.035. 
  7. ↑ V. Fthenakis and H. C. Kim. (2010). "Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14: 2039–2048. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.008. 
  8. ↑ de Wild-Scholten, Mariska (2013). "Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems". Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 119: 296–305. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.037. 
  9. ↑ Various estimates of world module production in 2007 are about 4 gigawatts (e.g., http://worldwatch.org/node/5449#notes).
  10. ↑ 19.9% CIGS cell made at NREL:
  11. ↑ M.A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa,W.Warta, E.D. Dunlop (2013). "Solar cell efficiency tables (version 42)". Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Application 21: 827–837. doi:10.1002/pip.2404. 
  12. ↑ D. A. Jenny and R. H. Bube (1954). "Semiconducting CdTe". Phys. Rev. 96 (5): 1190. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.96.1190. 
  13. ↑ R. H. Bube (1955). "Photoconductivity of the Sulfide, Selenide, and Telluride of Zinc or Cadmium". Proceedings of the IRE 43 (12): 1836–1850. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1955.278046. ISSN 0096-8390. 
  14. ↑ D. A. Cusano (1963). "CdTe Solar Cells and PV Heterojunctions in II-VI Compounds". Solid State Electronics 6 (3): 217. doi:10.1016/0038-1101(63)90078-9. 
  15. ↑ B. Goldstein (1958). "Properties of PV Films of CdTe". Phys. Rev 109 (2): 601. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.109.601.2. 
  16. ↑ Y. A. Vodakov, G. A. Lomakina, G. P. Naumov, Y. P. Maslakovets (1960). "A P-N Junction photocell made of CdTe". Soviet Physics, Solid State 2 (1): 1. 
  17. ↑ R. Colman, July 28, 1964 U.S. Patent 3,142,586
  18. ↑ D. A. Cusano led a group at GE in the 1960s.
  19. ↑ Y. S. Tyan, 1978, Polycrystalline thin film CdS/CdTe photovoltaic cell, Kodak, U.S. Patent 4,207,119 (EP0006025); Y. S. Tyan and E. A. Perez-Albuerne, 1982, Integrated array of photovoltaic cells having minimized shorting losses, Kodak, U.S. Patent 4,315,096. Tyan especially published both patents and papers of significance at Kodak and helped to establish CdTe as an important thin film option.
  20. ↑ B. Basol, E. Tseng, R.L. Rod, 1981, Thin film heterojunction photovoltaic cells and methods of making the same, Monosolar U.S. Patent 4,388,483. B. Basol patented numerous aspects of electrodeposition and CdTe contacting for Monosolar. Monosolar was subsequently bought by SOHIO, which was then absorbed by British Petroleum. Electrodeposition continued at BP Solar until about 2002 when it was canceled along with all thin film work at BP.
  21. ↑ Peter Meyers, originally of Ametek, provides a thread stretching from Ametek through Solar Cells Inc. to First Solar. He is on Ametek patents U.S. Patent 4,260,427, 1981; U.S. Patent 4,710,589, 1987; and SCI/First Solar patents
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 K. Zweibel (1995). "Thin Films Past Present and Future". Nrel/tp-413-7486. R. Noufi and K. Zweibel (2006). High-Efficiency CdTe and CIGS Thin-Film Solar Cells: Highlights and Challenges. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA. 
  23. ↑ "While First Solar keeps on trucking, others in CdTe thin-film PV pack keep on muddling". Fabtech.org. 2008-08-21.  \
  24. ↑ "Roth & Rau AG plans entry into thin film technology based on cadmium telluride". roth-rau.de. 2009-02-23. 
  25. ↑ Flexible CdTe thin-film solar cells reach efficiency of 12.4% http://www.worldofrenewables.com/renewables_news/photovoltaics/thin_film_pv/flexible_cdte_thin-film_solar_cells_reach_efficiency_of_12_4.html
  26. ↑ Harold McMaster envisioned the opportunity for low-cost thin films made on a large scale. After trying amorphous silicon, he shifted to CdTe at the urging of Jim Nolan and founded Solar Cells inc., the precursor of First Solar; After long wait, McMaster to join hall of fame/804290323, April 29, 2008
  27. ↑ SCI CSS patent: Foote et al. Process for making photovoltaic devices and resultant product, United States Patent 5248349; and their vapor transport patent, featuring the movement of vaporized cadmium and tellurium atoms through a closed, silicon carbide distributor: Apparatus and method for depositing a semiconductor material, United States Patent 6037241. Both are now owned by First Solar.
  28. ↑ D. H. Rose et al. (October 1999). Technology Support of High-Throughput Processing of Thin Film CdTe Panels. NREL SR-520-27149. p. Viii (preface). 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "First Solar annual manufacturing levels". FirstSolar.com. 2008. 
  30. ↑ Friedman, Thomas. "Hot, Flat, and Crowded" Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York; 2008. Page 388
  31. ↑ "First Solar Goes Supernova". Forbes.com. 2007-11-08. 
  32. ↑ "Taking Energy Forward". website. First Solar. 
  33. ↑ "2012 Annual Report". website. First Solar. p. 14. 
  34. ↑ http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/04/07/135212030/ge-unveils-plans-to-build-largest-solar-panel-factory-in-u-s
  35. ↑ M.A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa,W.Warta, E.D. Dunlop (2013). "Solar cell efficiency tables (version 42)|". Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Application 21: 827–837. doi:10.1002/pip.2404. 
  36. ↑ "First Solar Sets CdTe Module Efficiency World Record, Launches Series 3 Black Module". website. First Solar. 9 April 2013. 
  37. ↑ Sinha, P. (2013). "Life cycle materials and water management for CdTe photovoltaics". Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 119: 271–275. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.022. 
  38. ↑ M. Gloeckler, I. Sankin, Z. Zhao (2013). "CdTe Solar Cells at the Threshold to 20%". IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 3 (4): 1389–1393. 
  39. ↑ This number is calculated by multiplying efficiency (12.6%) by 1000 to get output watts per square meter (126 W/m2), and then multiplying power by the stated cost of $0.57 per watt to get $72/m2
  40. ↑ This number is calculated by dividing the cost per unit (e.g, $65/m2) by output per the same unit (15% produces 150 watts per square meter): $65/150 W = $0.4/W.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Parabolic Trough Technology Models and Software Tools". 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2008-10-14.  Like any solar price model, the Solar Advisory Model is quite sensitive to assumptions. Different sunlight, tax rates, interest rates, discount rates, loan durations, temperature coefficients, annual degradation rates, initial de-rating versus standard conditions, inverter efficiencies and O&M, and others can each have as much as a 10% impact on costs per unit power.
  42. ↑ "Regenerative Energiesysteme". Hanser Verlag. 2012. 
  43. ↑ P. Singh and N.M. Ravindra (June 2012). "Temperature Dependence of Solar Cell Performance—an Analysis". Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 101: 36–45. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2012.02.019. 
  44. ↑ Green, M. (August 2003). "General Temperature Dependence of Solar Cell Performance and Implications for Device Modelling". Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 11 (5): 333–340. doi:10.1002/pip.496. 
  45. ↑ N. Strevel, L. Trippel, M. Gloeckler (August 2012). "Performance characterization and superior energy yield of First Solar PV power plants in high temperature conditions". Photovoltaics International. 
  46. ↑ P. Sinha and S. Dailey (November 2013). "Tracking systems boost eco-efficiency". Solar Industry. 
  47. ↑ M. Raugei and V. Fthenakis (2010). "Cadmium flows and emissions from CdTe PV: future expectations". Energy Policy: 5223–5228. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.05.007. 
  48. ↑ V. Fthenakis, M. Fuhrmann, J. Heiser, W. Wang (2004). "Experimental Investigation of Emissions and Redistribution of Elements in CdTe PV Modules during Fires.". 19th European PV Solar Energy Conference (Paris, France). 
  49. ↑ Beckmann and Mennenga (2011). Calculation of emissions when there is a fire in a photovoltaic system made of cadmium telluride modules. Bavarian Environmental Protection Agency. 
  50. ↑ V. Fthenakis, H. C. Kim (2006). "CdTe Photovoltaics: Life Cycle Environmental Profile and Comparisons". European Material Research Society Meeting, Symposium for environmental issues. 
  51. ↑ D. H. Rose et al. (1999). Technology Support of High-Throughput Processing of Thin Film CdTe Panels. NREL. 
  52. ↑ "Assessment of critical thin film resources" (.doc file). 
  53. ↑ "Tellurium". Mineral Commodity Summaries. United States Geological Survey. January 2008. 
  54. ↑ Density of CdTe is 5.85 g/cm³ with Te being 53% of the mass, there is about 3.1 g/cm³ Te in CdTe. One micrometre over a square meter area is 1 cubic centimetre, or 3.1 grams of Te. Typical CdTe layer thicknesses are about 3 micrometres, so there are 9.3 g/m2. First Solar CdTe solar panels are 8 square feet (0.74 m2) each and provides average of 73.75 watts, or roughly 100 watts per square meter. So one gigawatt is 10 km2, or 93 metric tons.
  55. ↑ Max Marwede and Armin Reller (2012). "Future recycling flows of tellurium from cadmium telluride photovoltaic waste". Resources, Conservation, & Recycling 69: 35–49. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.09.003. 
  56. ↑ Publications of the Sichuan Xinju Mineral Resource Development Co., China
  57. ↑ Zweibel, K. (2010). "The Impact of Tellurium Supply on Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaics". Science 328 (5979): 699–701. doi:10.1126/science.1189690. 
  58. ↑ B. L. Cohen (1984). "Anomalous behavior of tellurium abundances". Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 38: 279–300. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 J. Hein (2004). "Chapter 5 from Workshop on Minerals other than Polymetallic Nodules of the International Seabed Area". Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts: Global Distribution, Composition, Origin and Research Activities. Kingston, Jamaica: Office of Resource and Environmental Monitoring, International Seabed Authority. ISBN 976-610-647-9. "It has been suggested that Te is unique in the universe in that its cosmic abundance is as great or greater than any of other element with an atomic number higher than 40 (http://www.webelements.com), yet it is one of the least abundant elements in the Earth’s crust and in ocean water."" 
  60. ↑ J. Hein, A. Koschinsky, and A. Halliday (2003). "Global Occurrence of tellurium-rich ferromanganese crusts and a model for enrichment of tellurium". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 67: 1117–1127. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(00)01279-6. "The ridges occur at 400-4000 m depths where currents have kept the rocks swept clean of sediments for millions of years. Crusts…forming pavements up to 250 mm thick" 
  61. ↑ Held, M. Held (2009). "Life Cycle Assessment of CdTe Module Recycling". 24th EU PVSEC Conference (Hamburg, Germany). 
  62. ↑ http://cleantechnica.com/2013/11/07/first-solar-reports-largest-quarterly-decline-cdte-module-cost-per-watt-since-2007/
  63. ↑ Pacific Crest Presentation, August 3–5, 2008
  64. ↑ "Grid-connected bulk power systems". website. First Solar. 
  65. ↑ "Agua Caliente". First Solar. 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 "Projects". First Solar. 
  67. ↑ Report at juwi.de PDF (401 KB)
  68. ↑ "First Solar announces two solar projects with Southern California Edison". Semiconductor-Today.com. 2008-07-17. 
  69. ↑ "California Utility to Install 250MW of Roof-Top Solar". SustainableBusiness.com. 2008-03-27. 

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