British Museum

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For other uses, see British Museum (disambiguation).
British Museum
Location within central London
Established 1753 (1753)
Location Great Russell Street, London, United Kingdom
Coordinates 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.519459°N 0.126931°W / 51.519459; -0.126931
Collection size approx. 8 million objects[1]
Visitors

6,701,036 (2013)[2]

Public transit access London Underground: Tottenham Court Road, Holborn, Russell Square, and Goodge Street stations
Website britishmuseum.org
The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the Great Court, surrounding the original Reading Room.

The British Museum is a museum in London dedicated to human history and culture. Its permanent collection, numbering some 8 million works,[3] is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence[3] and originates from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.[a]

The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. The museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759 in Montagu House in Bloomsbury, on the site of the current museum building. Its expansion over the following two and a half centuries was largely a result of an expanding British colonial footprint and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the British Museum (Natural History) in South Kensington in 1887. Some objects in the collection, most notably the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, are the objects of controversy and of calls for restitution to their countries of origin.

Until 1997, when the British Library (previously centred on the Round Reading Room) moved to a new site, the British Museum housed both a national museum of antiquities and a national library in the same building. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all other national museums in the United Kingdom it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions.[4] Since 2002 the director of the museum has been Neil MacGregor.[5]

History

Sir Hans Sloane, founder of the British Museum

Sir Hans Sloane

Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753). During the course of his lifetime Sloane gathered an enviable collection of curiosities and, not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for the princely sum of £20,000.[6]

At that time, Sloane's collection consisted of around 71,000 objects of all kinds[7] including some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens including 337 volumes of dried plants, prints and drawings including those by Albrecht Dürer and antiquities from Egypt, Greece, Rome, the Ancient Near and Far East and the Americas.[8]

Foundation (1753)

On 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum.[b] The Foundation Act, added two other libraries to the Sloane collection. The Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dated back to Elizabethan times and the Harleian library, the collection of the Earls of Oxford. They were joined in 1757 by the Royal Library, assembled by various British monarchs. Together these four "foundation collections" included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library[9] including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf.[c]

Montagu House, c. 1715

The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to collect everything. Sloane's collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests.[10] The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary and antiquarian element and meant that the British Museum now became both national museum and library.[11]

Cabinet of curiosities (1753–78)

The Rosetta Stone on display in the British Museum in 1874

The body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location.[12][d]

With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759.[13] In 1757 King George II gave the Old Royal Library and with it the right to a copy of every book published in the country, thereby ensuring that the Museum's library would expand indefinitely. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several further gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts and David Garrick's library of 1,000 printed plays. The predominance of natural history, books and manuscripts began to lessen when in 1772 the Museum acquired for £8,400 its first significant antiquities in Sir William Hamilton's "first" collection of Greek vases.[14]

Indolence and energy (1778–1800)

From 1778 a display of objects from the South Seas brought back from the round-the-world voyages of Captain James Cook and the travels of other explorers fascinated visitors with a glimpse of previously unknown lands. The bequest of a collection of books, engraved gems, coins, prints and drawings by Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode in 1800 did much to raise the Museum's reputation; but Montagu House became increasingly crowded and decrepit and it was apparent that it would be unable to cope with further expansion.[15]

The museum’s first notable addition towards its collection of antiquities, since its foundation, was by Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), British Ambassador to Naples, who sold his collection of Greek and Roman artefacts to the museum in 1784 together with a number of other antiquities and natural history specimens. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784 refers to the Hamilton bequest of a "Colossal Foot of an Apollo in Marble". It was one of two antiquities of Hamilton's collection drawn for him by Francesco Progenie, a pupil of Pietro Fabris, who also contributed a number of drawings of Mount Vesuvius sent by Hamilton to the Royal Society in London.

Growth and change (1800–25)

The Elgin Room, 1937
Left to Right: Montagu House, Townley Gallery and Sir Robert Smirke's west wing under construction (July 1828)
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus Room, 1920s

In the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. After the defeat of the French campaign in the Battle of the Nile, in 1801, the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculptures and in 1802 King George III presented the Rosetta Stone – key to the deciphering of hieroglyphs.[16] Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, laid the foundations of the collection of Egyptian Monumental Sculpture.[17] Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803 removed the large collection of marble sculptures from the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens and transferred them to the UK. In 1816 these masterpieces of western art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament and deposited in the museum thereafter.[18] The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815. The Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich.[19]

In 1802 a Buildings Committee was set up to plan for expansion of the museum, and further highlighted by the donation in 1822 of the King's Library, personal library of King George III's, comprising 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawings.[20] The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an eastern extension to the Museum "... for the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it ..."[21] and put forward plans for today's quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the King's Library Gallery began in 1823. The extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. However, following the founding of the National Gallery, London in 1824,[e] the proposed Picture Gallery was no longer needed, and the space on the upper floor was given over to the Natural history collections.[22]

The largest building site in Europe (1825–50)

The Grenville Library, (1875)

The Museum became a construction site as Sir Robert Smirke's grand neo-classical building gradually arose. The King's Library, on the ground floor of the East Wing, was handed over in 1827, and was described as one of the finest rooms in London although it was not fully open to the general public until 1857, however, special openings were arranged during The Great Exhibition of 1851. In spite of dirt and disruption the collections grew, outpacing the new building.[citation needed]

Archaeological excavations

In 1840 the Museum became involved in its first overseas excavations, Charles Fellows's expedition to Xanthos, in Asia Minor, whence came remains of the tombs of the rulers of ancient Lycia, among them the Nereid and Payava monuments. In 1857 Charles Newton was to discover the 4th-century BC Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In the 1840s and 1850s the Museum supported excavations in Assyria by A.H. Layard and others at sites such as Nimrud and Nineveh. Of particular interest to curators was the eventual discovery of Ashurbanipal's great library of cuneiform tablets, which helped to make the Museum a focus for Assyrian studies.[23]

Sir Thomas Grenville (1755–1846), a Trustee of The British Museum from 1830, assembled a fine library of 20,240 volumes, which he left to the Museum in his will. The books arrived in January 1847 in twenty-one horse-drawn vans. The only vacant space for this large library was a room originally intended for manuscripts, between the Front Entrance Hall and the Manuscript Saloon. The books remained here until the British Library moved to St Pancras in 1998.

Collecting from the wider world (1850–75)

The opening of the forecourt in 1852 marked the completion of Robert Smirke's 1823 plan, but already adjustments were having to be made to cope with the unforeseen growth of the collections. Infill galleries were constructed for Assyrian sculptures and Sydney Smirke's Round Reading Room, with space for a million books, opened in 1857. Because of continued pressure on space the decision was taken to move natural history to a new building in South Kensington, which would later become the British Museum of Natural History.

Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the "second founder" of the British Museum, the Italian librarian Anthony Panizzi. Under his supervision, the British Museum Library (now the British Library) quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library, the largest library in the world after the National Library of Paris.[11] The quadrangle at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular Reading Room of cast iron, designed by Smirke's brother, Sydney Smirke.[24]

Until the mid-19th century, the Museum's collections were relatively circumscribed but, in 1851, with the appointment to the staff of Augustus Wollaston Franks to curate the collections, the Museum began for the first time to collect British and European medieval antiquities, prehistory, branching out into Asia and diversifying its holdings of ethnography. Overseas excavations continued and John Turtle Wood discovered the remains of the 4th century BC Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, another Wonder of the Ancient World.[25]

Scholarship and legacies (1875–1900)

The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum of Natural History, now the Natural History Museum, in 1887. With the departure and the completion of the new White Wing (fronting Montague Street) in 1884, more space was available for antiquities and ethnography and the library could further expand. This was a time of innovation as electric lighting was introduced in the Reading Room and exhibition galleries.[26]

In 1882 the Museum was involved in the establishment of the independent Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society) the first British body to carry out research in Egypt. A bequest from Miss Emma Turner in 1892 financed excavations in Cyprus. In 1897 the death of the great collector and curator, A.W. Franks, was followed by an immense bequest of 3,300 finger rings, 153 drinking vessels, 512 pieces of continental porcelain, 1,500 netsuke, 850 inro, over 30,000 bookplates and miscellaneous items of jewellery and plate, among them the Oxus Treasure.[27]

In 1898 Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bequeathed the glittering contents from his New Smoking Room at Waddesdon Manor as the Waddesdon Bequest. This consisted of almost 300 pieces of objets d'art et de vertu which included exquisite examples of jewellery, plate, enamel, carvings, glass and maiolica, among them the Holy Thorn Reliquary, probably created in the 1390s in Paris for John, Duke of Berry. The collection was in the tradition of a schatzkammer or treasure house such as those formed by the Renaissance princes of Europe.[28] Baron Ferdinand's will was most specific, and failure to observe the terms would make it void, the collection should be

placed in a special room to be called the Waddesdon Bequest Room separate and apart from the other contents of the Museum and thenceforth for ever thereafter, keep the same in such room or in some other room to be substituted for it.[28]
These terms are still observed, and the collection occupies room 45.

New century, new building (1900–25)

Opening of The White Wing, King Edward VII's Galleries (1914)
Sir Leonard Woolley holding the famous excavated Sumerian Queen's Lyre, (1922)

By the last years of the 19th century, The British Museum's collections had increased so much that the Museum building was no longer big enough for them. In 1895 the trustees purchased the 69 houses surrounding the Museum with the intention of demolishing them and building around the West, North and East sides of the Museum. The first stage was the construction of the northern wing beginning 1906.

All the while, the collections kept growing. Emily Torday collected in Central Africa, Aurel Stein in Central Asia, D.G. Hogarth, Leonard Woolley and T. E. Lawrence excavated at Carchemish. In 1918, because of the threat of wartime bombing, some objects were evacuated to a Postal Tube Railway at Holborn, the National Library of Wales (Aberystwyth) and a country house near Malvern. On the return of antiquities from wartime storage in 1919 some objects were found to have deteriorated. A temporary conservation laboratory was set up in May 1920 and became a permanent department in 1931. It is today the oldest in continuous existence.[29] In 1923 the British Museum welcomed over one million visitors.

Disruption and reconstruction (1925–50)

New mezzanine floors were constructed and book stacks rebuilt in an attempt to cope with the flood of books. In 1931 the art dealer Sir Joseph Duveen offered funds to build a gallery for the Parthenon sculptures. Designed by the American architect John Russell Pope, it was completed in 1938. The appearance of the exhibition galleries began to change as dark Victorian reds gave way to modern pastel shades.[f] However, in August 1939, due to the imminence of war and the likelihood of air-raids the Parthenon Sculptures along with Museum's most valued collections were dispersed to secure basements, country houses, Aldwych tube station, the National Library of Wales and a quarry. The evacuation was timely, for in 1940 the Duveen Gallery was severely damaged by bombing.[30] The Museum continued to collect from all countries and all centuries: among the most spectacular additions were the 2600 BC Mesopotamian treasure from Ur, discovered during Leonard Woolley's 1922–34 excavations. Gold, silver and garnet grave goods from the Anglo-Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo (1939) and late Roman silver tableware from Mildenhall, Suffolk (1946). The immediate post-war years were taken up with the return of the collections from protection and the restoration of the museum after the blitz. Work also began on restoring the damaged Duveen Gallery.

A new public face (1950–75)

The re-opened Duveen Gallery, (1980)

In 1953 the Museum celebrated its bicentenary. Many changes followed: the first full-time in house designer and publications officer were appointed in 1964, A Friends organisation was set up in 1968, an Education Service established in 1970 and publishing house in 1973. In 1963 a new Act of Parliament introduced administrative reforms. It became easier to lend objects, the constitution of the Board of Trustees changed and the Natural History Museum became fully independent. By 1959 the Coins and Medals office suite, completely destroyed during the war, was rebuilt and re-opened, attention turned towards the gallery work with new tastes in design leading to the remodelling of Robert Smirke's Classical and Near Eastern galleries.[31] In 1962 the Duveen Gallery was finally restored and the Parthenon Sculptures were moved back into it, once again at the heart of the museum.[g]

By the 1970s the Museum was again expanding. More services for the public were introduced; visitor numbers soared, with the temporary exhibition "Treasures of Tutankhamun" in 1972, attracting 1,694,117 visitors, the most successful in British history. In the same year the Act of Parliament establishing the British Library was passed, separating the collection of manuscripts and printed books from the British Museum. This left the Museum with antiquities; coins, medals and paper money; prints & drawings; and ethnography. A pressing problem was finding space for additions to the library which now required an extra 1¼ miles of shelving each year. The Government suggested a site at St Pancras for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997.

The Great Court emerges (1975–2000)

The departure of the British Library to a new site at St Pancras, finally achieved in 1998, provided the space needed for the books. It also created the opportunity to redevelop the vacant space in Robert Smirke's 19th-century central quadrangle into the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court – the largest covered square in Europe – which opened in 2000.

The ethnography collections, which had been housed in the short-lived Museum of Mankind at 6 Burlington Gardens from 1970, were returned to new purpose-built galleries.

The Museum again readjusted its collecting policies as interest in "modern" objects: prints, drawings, medals and the decorative arts reawakened. Ethnographical fieldwork was carried out in places as diverse as New Guinea, Madagascar, Romania, Guatemala and Indonesia and there were excavations in the Near East, Egypt, Sudan and the UK. The Weston Gallery of Roman Britain, opened in 1997, displayed a number of recently discovered hoards which demonstrated the richness of what had been considered an unimportant part of the Roman Empire. The Museum turned increasingly towards private funds for buildings, acquisitions and other purposes.[32]

The Museum today

Students paint their own icon in the Egyptian sculpture gallery in 2009

Today it no longer houses collections of natural history, and the books and manuscripts it once held now form part of the independent British Library. The Museum nevertheless preserves its universality in its collections of artefacts representing the cultures of the world, ancient and modern. The original 1753 collection has grown to over thirteen million objects at the British Museum, 70 million at the Natural History Museum and 150 million at the British Library.

The Round Reading Room, which was designed by the architect Sydney Smirke, opened in 1857. For almost 150 years researchers came here to consult the Museum's vast library. The Reading Room closed in 1997 when the national library (the British Library) moved to a new building at St Pancras. Today it has been transformed into the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre.

With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum empty, the process of demolition for Lord Foster's glass-roofed Great Court could begin. The Great Court, opened in 2000, while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public. At the same time the African and Oceanic collections that had been temporarily housed in 6 Burlington Gardens were given a new gallery in the North Wing funded by the Sainsbury family – with the donation valued at £25 million.[33]

As part of its very large website, the museum has the largest online database of objects in the collection of any museum in the world, with 2,000,000 individual object entries, 650,000 of them illustrated, online at the start of 2012.[34] There is also a "Highlights" database with longer entries on over 4,000 objects, and several specialised online research catalogues and online journals (all free to access).[35]

Governance

In real terms, the British Museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport through a three-year funding agreement. Its head is the Director. The British Museum was run from its inception by a 'Principal Librarian' (when the book collections were still part of the Museum), a role that was renamed 'Director and Principal Librarian' in 1898, and 'Director' in 1973 (on the separation of the British Library).[36]

A board of 25 trustees (with the Director as their accounting officer for the purposes of reporting to Government) is responsible for the general management and control of the Museum, in accordance with the British Museum Act 1963 and the Museums and Galleries Act 1992.[37] Prior to the 1963 Act, it was chaired by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker of the House of Commons. The board was formed on the Museum's inception to hold its collections in trust for the nation without actually owning them themselves, and now fulfil a mainly advisory role. Trustee appointments are governed by the regulatory framework set out in the code of practice on public appointments issued by the Office of the Commissioner for Public Appointments. For a list of current trustees, see here.[38]

Building

The entrance to the museum

The Greek Revival façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke, with 44 columns in the Ionic order 45 ft (14 m) high, closely based on those of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene in Asia Minor. The pediment over the main entrance is decorated by sculptures by Sir Richard Westmacott depicting The Progress of Civilisation, consisting of fifteen allegorical figures, installed in 1852.

The construction commenced around the courtyard with the East Wing (The King's Library) in 1823–1828, followed by the North Wing in 1833–1838, which originally housed among other galleries a reading room, now the Wellcome Gallery. Work was also progressing on the northern half of the West Wing (The Egyptian Sculpture Gallery) 1826–1831, with Montagu House demolished in 1842 to make room for the final part of the West Wing, completed in 1846, and the South Wing with its great colonnade, initiated in 1843 and completed in 1847, when the Front Hall and Great Staircase were opened to the public.[39] The Museum is faced with Portland stone, but the perimeter walls and other parts of the building were built using Haytor granite from Dartmoor in South Devon, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway.[40]

The King's Library

In 1846 Robert Smirke was replaced as the Museum's architect by his brother Sydney Smirke, whose major addition was the Round Reading Room 1854–1857; at 140 feet (43 m) in diameter it was then the second widest dome in the world, the Pantheon in Rome being slightly wider.

The next major addition was the White Wing 1882–1884 added behind the eastern end of the South Front, the architect being Sir John Taylor.

In 1895, Parliament gave the Museum Trustees a loan of £200,000 to purchase from the Duke of Bedford all 69 houses which backed onto the Museum building in the five surrounding streets – Great Russell Street, Montague Street, Montague Place, Bedford Square and Bloomsbury Street.[41] The Trustees planned to demolish these houses and to build around the West, North and East sides of the Museum new galleries that would completely fill the block on which the Museum stands. The architect Sir John James Burnet was petitioned to put forward ambitious long-term plans to extend the building on all three sides. Most of the houses in Montague Place were knocked down a few years after the sale. Of this grand plan only the Edward VII galleries in the centre of the North Front were ever constructed, these were built 1906–14 to the design by J.J. Burnet, and opened by King George V and Queen Mary in 1914. They now house the Museum's collections of Prints and Drawings and Oriental Antiquities. There was not enough money to put up more new buildings, and so the houses in the other streets are nearly all still standing.

Proposed British Museum Extension, 1906
The Reading Room and Great Court roof

The Duveen Gallery, sited to the west of the Egyptian, Greek & Assyrian sculpture galleries, was designed to house the Elgin Marbles by the American Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope. Although completed in 1938, it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years, before reopening in 1962. Other areas damaged during World War II bombing included: in September 1940 two unexploded bombs hit the Edward VII galleries, the King's Library received a direct hit from a high explosive bomb, incendiaries fell on the dome of the Round Reading Room but did little damage; on the night of 10 to 11 May 1941 several incendiaries fell on the south west corner of the Museum, destroying the book stack and 150,000 books in the courtyard and the galleries around the top of the Great Staircase – this damage was not fully repaired until the early 1960s.[42]

The Queen Elizabeth II Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the engineers Buro Happold and the architects Foster and Partners.[43] The Great Court opened in December 2000 and is the largest covered square in Europe. The roof is a glass and steel construction, built by an Austrian steelwork company,[44] with 1,656 uniquely shaped panes of glass. At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the British Library, its functions now moved to St Pancras. The Reading Room is open to any member of the public who wishes to read there.

Today, the British Museum has grown to become one of the largest museums in the world, covering an area of over 92,000 m2 (990,000 sq. ft).[3][45] In addition to 21,600 m2 (232,000 sq. ft)[46] of on-site storage space, and 9,400 m2 (101,000 sq. ft)[46] of external storage space. Altogether the British Museum showcases on public display less than 1%[46] of its entire collection, approximately 50,000 items.[47] There are nearly one hundred galleries open to the public, representing 2 miles (3.2 km) of exhibition space, although the less popular ones have restricted opening times. However, the lack of a large temporary exhibition space has led to the £100 million World Conservation and Exhibition Centre to provide one and to concentrate all the Museum's conservation facilities into one Conservation Centre. This project was announced in July 2007, with the architects Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners. It was granted planning permission in December 2009 and is expected for completion by 2013.[48]

Blythe House in West Kensington is used by the Museum for off-site storage of small and medium-sized artefacts, and Franks House in East London is used for storage and work on the "Early Prehistory" – Palaeolithic and Mesolithic – and some other collections.[49]

Departments

Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan

Room 4 – Colossal red granite statue of Amenhotep III (1350 BC)

The British Museum houses the world's largest[h] and most comprehensive collection of Egyptian antiquities (with over 100,000[50] pieces) outside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. A collection of immense importance for its range and quality, it includes objects of all periods from virtually every site of importance in Egypt and the Sudan. Together they illustrate every aspect of the cultures of the Nile Valley (including Nubia), from the Predynastic Neolithic period (c. 10,000 BC) through to the Coptic (Christian) times (12th century AD), a time-span over 11,000 years.

Egyptian antiquities have formed part of the British Museum collection ever since its foundation in 1753 after receiving 160 Egyptian objects[51] from Sir Hans Sloane. After the defeat of the French forces under Napoleon at the Battle of the Nile in 1801, the Egyptian antiquities collected were confiscated by the British army and presented to the British Museum in 1803. These works, which included the famed Rosetta Stone, were the first important group of large sculptures to be acquired by the Museum. Thereafter, the UK appointed Henry Salt as consul in Egypt who amassed a huge collection of antiquities. Most of the antiquities Salt collected were purchased by the British Museum and the Musée du Louvre. By 1866 the collection consisted of some 10,000 objects. Antiquities from excavations started to come to the Museum in the later 19th century as a result of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund under the efforts of E.A. Wallis Budge. The collection stood at 57,000 objects by 1924. Active support by the Museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in useful acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported. The size of the Egyptian collections now stands at over 110,000 objects.[52]

In autumn 2001 the eight million objects forming the Museum's permanent collection were further expanded by the addition of six million objects from the Wendorf Collection of Egyptian and Sudanese Prehistory.[53] These were donated by Professor Fred Wendorf of Southern Methodist University in Texas, and comprise the entire collection of artefacts and environmental remains from his excavations between 1963 and 1997. They are in the care of the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan.

Room 4 – Colossal bust of Ramesses II, the 'Younger Memnon' (1250 BC)

The seven permanent Egyptian galleries at the British Museum, which include its largest exhibition space (Room 4, for monumental sculpture), can display only 4% of its Egyptian holdings. The second-floor galleries have a selection of the Museum's collection of 140 mummies and coffins, the largest outside Cairo. A high proportion of the collection comes from tombs or contexts associated with the cult of the dead, and it is these pieces, in particular the mummies, that remain among the most eagerly sought after exhibits by visitors to the Museum.

Key highlights of the collections include:

  • Room 4 – The Rosetta Stone, 196 BC, key to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

  • Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the pharaoh Sesotris III, c.1850 BC

  • Room 4 – Colossal statue of Amenhotep III, c.1370 BC

  • Room 4 – Three black granite statues of the goddess Sakhmet, c.1400 BC

  • Great Court – Colossal quartzite statue of Amenhotep III, c.1350 BC

  • Room 4

  • Room 4

Department of Greece and Rome

Room 17 – Reconstruction of the Nereid Monument, circa 390 BC
Room 18 – Parthenon marbles from the Acropolis of Athens, 447 BC
Room 21 – Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, mid- 4th century BC, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

The British Museum has one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of antiquities from the Classical world, with over 100,000 objects. These mostly range in date from the beginning of the Greek Bronze Age (about 3200 BC) to the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine I in the 4th century AD.

The Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean cultures are represented, and the Greek collection includes important sculpture from the Parthenon in Athens, as well as elements of two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos.

The Department also houses one of the widest-ranging collections of Italic and Etruscan antiquities and extensive groups of material from Cyprus. The collections of ancient jewellery and bronzes, Greek vases and Roman glass and silver are particularly important.

Key highlights of the collections include:

Athenian Akropolis
The Parthenon Gallery (Elgin Marbles)
Erechtheion
  • One of six remaining Caryatids
  • Surviving Column
Athena Nike
Bassae Sculptures
  • Twenty three surviving blocks of the frieze from the interior of the temple are exhibited on an upper level.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
  • Two colossal free-standing figures identified as Maussollos and his wife Artemisia.
  • Part of an impressive horse from the chariot group adorning the summit of the Mausoleum
  • The Amazonomachy frieze – A long section of relief frieze showing the battle between Greeks and Amazons
Temple of Artemis in Ephesus
One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
  • One of the sculptured column bases
Finds from Knidos in Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Nereid Monument
  • Partial reconstruction of the Monument, a large and elaborate Lykian tomb from the site of Xanthos in south-west Turkey
  • Payava Tomb from Xanthos in south west Turkey
Wider Museum Collection

Department of the Middle East

Room 9 – Nineveh Palace Reliefs

Formerly the Department of the Ancient Near East, with a collection numbering some 330,000 works,[56] the British Museum possesses by far the world's largest and most important collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq. A collection of immense importance, the holdings of Assyrian, Babylonian and Sumerian antiquities are among the most comprehensive in the world with entire suites of rooms panelled in alabaster bas-reliefs from highly important sites between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris and include the biblical cities of Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad.

The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas. These include Mesopotamia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, parts of Central Asia, Syria, Palestine and Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean from the prehistoric period until the beginning of Islam in the 7th century. The collection includes six iconic winged human-headed statues from Nimrud and Khorsabad. Stone bas-reliefs, including the famous Royal Lion Hunt relief's (Room 10), that were found in the palaces of the Assyrian kings at Nimrud and Nineveh. The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh and Sumerian treasures found in Royal Cemetery's at Ur of the Chaldees.

The earliest Mesopotamian objects to enter the collection were purchased by the British Museum in 1772 from Sir William Hamilton. The Museum also acquired at this early date a number of sculptures from Persepolis. The next significant addition (in 1825) was from the collection of Claudius James Rich. The collection was dramatically enlarged by the excavations of A. H. Layard at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh between 1845 and 1851.

Room 6 – Pair of Human Headed Winged Lions and Reliefs from Nimrud with the Balawat Gates

At Nimrud, Layard discovered the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, as well as three other palaces and various temples. He also opened in the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh with 'no less than seventy-one halls'. As a result a large numbers of Lamassu's, bas-reliefs, stelae, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III were brought to the British Museum. Layard's work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam and in 1852–1854 he went on to discover the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh with many magnificent reliefs, including the famous Royal Lion Hunt scenes. He also discovered the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, a large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance. W. K. Loftus excavated in Nimrud between 1850 and 1855 and found a remarkable hoard of ivories in the Burnt Palace. Between 1878 and 1882 Rassam greatly improved the Museum's holdings with exquisite objects including the Cyrus Cylinder from Babylon, the bronze gates from Balawat, and a fine collection of Urartian bronzes. Rassam collected thousands of cuneiform tablets, today with the acquisition of further tablets in the 20th century, the collection now numbers around 130,000 pieces. In the 20th century excavations were carried out at Carchemish, Turkey, between 1911 and 1914 and in 1920 by D. G. Hogarth and Leonard Woolley, the latter assisted by T. E. Lawrence. The Mesopotamian collections were greatly augmented by excavations in southern Iraq after the First World War. From Tell al-Ubaid in 1919 and 1923–1924, directed by H. R. Hall came the bronze furnishings of a Sumerian temple, including life-sized lions and a panel featuring the lion-headed eagle Indugud. Woolley went onto to excavate Ur between 1922 and 1934, discovering the 'Royal Cemeteries' of the 3rd millennium BC. Some of the masterpieces include the 'Standard of Ur', the 'Ram in a Thicket', the 'Royal Game of Ur', and two bull-headed lyres.

Although the collections centre on Mesopotamia most of the surrounding areas are well represented. The Achaemenid collection was enhanced with the addition of the Oxus Treasure in 1897, by acquisition from the German scholar Ernst Herzfeld, and then by the work of Sir Aurel Stein. From Palmyra there is a large collection of nearly forty funerary busts, acquired in the 19th century. A group of stone reliefs from the excavations of Max von Oppenheim at Tell Halaf, purchased in 1920. More excavated material from the excavations of Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak in 1935–1938, and from Woolley at Alalakh in the years just before and after the Second World War. The collection of Palestinian material was strengthened with the acquisition in 1980 of around 17,000 objects found at Lachish by the Wellcome-Marston expedition of 1932–1938.

A representative selection, including the most important pieces, are on display in 13 galleries and total some 4500 objects. The remainder form the study collection which ranges in size from beads to large sculptures. They include approximately 130,000 cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia.[57]

The museum's collection of Islamic art, including archaeological material, numbers about 40,000 objects,[58] one of the largest of its kind in the world. As such, it contains a broad range of Islamic pottery, paintings, tiles, metalwork, glass, seals, and inscriptions.

Key highlights of the collections include: Nimrud:

Alabaster bas-reliefs from:

Sculptures:

Nineveh

Alabaster bas-reliefs from:

  • North-Palace of Ashurbanipal
  • Royal Lion Hunt Scenes
  • The 'Dying Lion', long been acclaimed as a masterpiece
  • The 'Garden Party' Relief
  • South-West Palace of Sennacherib

Royal Library of Ashurbanipal:

Khorsabad
  • Alabaster bas-reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II
  • Pair of Human Headed Winged 'Lamassu' Bulls
Wider Collection

Department of Prints and Drawings

The Department of Prints and Drawings holds the national collection of Western Prints and Drawings. It ranks as one of the largest and best print room collections in existence alongside the Albertina in Vienna, the Paris collections and the Hermitage. The holdings are easily accessible to the general public in the Study Room, unlike many such collections.[59] The Department also has its own exhibition gallery in Room 90, where the displays and exhibitions change several times a year.[60]

Since its foundation in 1808 the Prints and Drawings collection has grown to international renown as one of the richest and most representative collections in the world. There are approximately 50,000 drawings and over two million prints.[60] The collection of drawings covers the period from the 14th century to the present, and includes many works of the highest quality by the leading artists of the European schools. The collection of prints covers the tradition of fine printmaking from its beginnings in the 15th century up to the present, with near complete holdings of most of the great names before the 19th century.

There are groups of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, (including his only surviving full-scale cartoon), Dürer (a collection of 138 drawings is one of the finest in existence), Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt, Claude and Watteau, and largely complete collections of the works of all the great printmakers including Dürer (99 engravings, 6 etchings and most of his 346 woodcuts), Rembrandt and Goya. More than 30,000 British drawings and watercolours include important examples of work by Hogarth, Sandby, Turner, Girtin, Constable, Cotman, Cox, Gillray, Rowlandson and Cruikshank, as well as all the great Victorians. There are about a million British prints including more than 20,000 satires and outstanding collections of works by William Blake and Thomas Bewick.[citation needed]. The great eleven volume Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum compiled between 1870 and 1954 is the definitive reference work for the study of British Satirical prints. Over 500,000 objects from the department are now on the online collection database, many with high quality images.[61] A 2011 donation of £1 million enabled the museum to acquire a complete set of Pablo Picasso's Vollard Suite.[62]

Department of Prehistory and Europe

The Department of Prehistory and Europe is responsible for collections that cover a vast expanse of time and geography. It includes the some of the earliest objects made by humans 2 million years ago; the art and archaeology of Europe from the earliest times to the present day, including the history of Britain under Roman occupation. It also includes the national collection of horology. In particular, the British Museum's collections covering the period AD 300 to 1100 are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world, extending from Spain to the Black Sea and from North Africa to Scandinavia.

Key highlights of the collections include:

Prehistoric

Romano-British

Early Mediaeval

Mediaeval

The many hoards of treasure include the Mildenhall Treasure, Esquiline Treasure, Water Newton Treasure, Hoxne Hoard, and Vale of York Hoard.

  • Room 2 – Handaxe, Lower Palaeolithic, Olduvai Gorge, circa 1.2 million years

  • Room 3 – Swimming Reindeer carving, France, Ice-Age 13,000 years (both one of the world's oldest works of art, as well as the oldest work of art in the British Museum's collection)[1]

  • Room 2 – Ain Sakhri lovers, from the cave of Ain Sakhri, near Bethlehem, 11,000 years old (oldest known representation of two people engaged in sexual intercourse)[2]

  • Room 51 – Mold gold cape, North Wales, Bronze Age, c. 1900–1600 BC (one of the finest examples of prehistoric sheet-gold working)

  • Room 49 – Hinton St Mary Mosaic, Roman Britain, circa 4th century (one of the earliest representations of Christ and the only such portrait on a mosaic floor from anywhere in the Roman Empire)

  • Room 2 – Sutton Hoo helmet, Angle-Saxon, early 7th century AD

  • Room 40 – Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup, c. AD 1370–80 (generally agreed to be the outstanding surviving example of late medieval French plate)

  • Room 45 – Holy Thorn Reliquary, Paris, c. AD 1390s


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Department of Asia

The scope of the Department of Asia is extremely broad, its collections of over 75,000 objects covers the material culture of the whole Asian continent (from East, South, Central and South-East Asia) and from the Neolithic up to the present day.[63][64][65]

Key highlights of the collections include:[66]

  • Amaravati Sculptures, 1st century BC and 3rd century AD

  • Section of the Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, c. 380 AD

  • Further section of the Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi, c. 380 AD

  • Portrait of Ibrâhîm 'Âdil Shâh II (1580–1626), Mughal Empire of India, 1615 AD

  • A Hamsa sacred swan vessel made of crystal, from Gandhara, 1st century AD

Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas

The British Museum houses one of the world's most comprehensive collections of Ethnographic material from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, representing the cultures of indigenous peoples throughout the world. Over 350,000 objects[68] spanning two million years tells the story of the history of man, from three major continents and many rich and diverse cultures.[citation needed]

The Sainsbury African Galleries display 600 objects from the greatest permanent collection of African arts and culture in the world. The three permanent galleries provide a substantial exhibition space for the Museum's African collection comprising over 200,000 objects. A curatorial scope that encompasses both archaeological and contemporary material, including both unique masterpieces of artistry and objects of everyday life.

Highlights of the African collection include the Benin Bronzes, the beautiful Bronze Head of Queen Idia, a magnificent brass head of a Yoruba ruler from Ife, Nigeria; Asante goldwork from Ghana and the Torday collection of Central African sculpture, textiles and weaponry.

The Americas collection mainly consists of 19th and 20th century items although the Inca, Aztec, Maya, Taino and other early cultures are well represented; they include a spectacular series of Mayan lintels from Yaxchilan, a collection of turquoise Aztec mosaics from Mexico and a group of Zemi Figures from Vere, Jamaica; collecting of modern artefacts is ongoing.

Department of Coins and Medals

The British Museum is home to one of the world's finest numismatic collections, comprising about a million objects. The collection spans the entire history of coinage from its origins in the 7th century BC to the present day. There are approximately 9,000 coins, medals and banknotes on display around the British Museum. More than half of these can be found in the HSBC Money Gallery (Gallery 68), while the remainder form part of the permanent displays throughout the Museum. Items from the full collection can be seen by the general public in the Study Room by appointment.[69]

Department of Conservation and Scientific Research

This department was founded in 1920. Conservation has six specialist areas: ceramics & glass; metals; organic material (including textiles); stone, wall paintings and mosaics; Eastern pictorial art and Western pictorial art. The science department[70] has and continues to develop techniques to date artefacts, analyse and identify the materials used in their manufacture, to identify the place an artefact originated and the techniques used in their creation. The department also publishes its findings and discoveries.

Libraries and Archives

This department covers all levels of education, from casual visitors, schools, degree level and beyond. The Museum's various libraries hold in excess of 350,000 books, journals and pamphlets covering all areas of the museum's collection. Also the general Museum archives which date from its foundation in 1753 are overseen by this department; the individual departments have their own separate archives and libraries covering their various areas of responsibility, which can be consulted by the public on application. The Anthropology Library is especially large, with 120,000 volumes[71] However, the Paul Hamlyn Library, which had become the central reference library of the British Museum and the only library there freely open to the general public, closed permanently in August 2011.[72] The website and online database of the collection also provide increasing amounts of information.

British Museum Press

British Museum Press (BMP) is the publishing business of British Museum Company (BMCo), a registered charity established in 1973 to encompass all commercial activity undertaken.[73]

Controversy

A few of the Elgin Marbles (also known as the Parthenon Marbles) from the East Pediment of the Parthenon.

It is a point of controversy whether museums should be allowed to possess artefacts taken from other countries, and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism. The Elgin Marbles, Benin Bronzes and the Rosetta Stone are among the most disputed objects in its collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of these artefacts to their native countries of Greece, Nigeria and Egypt respectively.

The British Museum has refused to return these artefacts, stating that the "restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world".[74] The Museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 legally prevents any object from leaving its collection once it has entered it. Nevertheless, it has returned items such as the Tasmanian Ashes after a 20-year long battle with Australia.[75]

The British Museum continues to assert that it is an appropriate custodian and has an inalienable right to its disputed artefacts under British law.

Disputed items in the collection

Galleries

Building
Museum Galleries

Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan

  • Room 4 – Egyptian Sculpture, view towards the Assyrian Transept

  • Room 61 – The famous false fresco 'Pond in a Garden' from the Tomb of Nebamun, c. 1350 BC

Department of the Middle East

  • The British Museum, Room 6 – Assyrian Sculpture

  • Room 8 – Pair of Lamassu from Nimrud & reliefs from the palace of Tiglath-Pileser III

  • Room 7 – Reliefs from the North-west palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud

  • Room 89 – Nimrud & Nineveh Palace Reliefs

  • Room 10 – Nineveh, The Royal Lion Hunt

  • Room 55 – The Dying Lion, Nineveh, Neo-Assyrian, c. 645 BC (long considered a masterpiece of Assyrian art)

  • Carved ivory object from the Nimrud Ivories, Phoenician, Nimrud, 9th–8th century BC (the Nimrud Ivories are widely considered to be one of the Ancient Near East's greatest discoveries)

Department of Greece and Rome

  • Room 18 – Ancient Greece

  • Room 20a – Tomb of Merehi & Greek Vases, Lycia, 360 BC

  • Room 85 – Portrait Sculpture, Roman

  • Room 83 – Roman Sculpture

  • Main Staircase – Discobolus, Roman

  • Main Staircase – Townley Caryatid, Roman, 140–160 AD

  • Room 22 – Marble statue of Demeter, Sanctuary of Demeter, Knidos, 350–330 BC

Department of Prints and Drawings

Department of Prehistory and Europe

Exhibitions

Forgotten Empire Exhibition (October 2005 – January 2006)

  • Room 5 – Exhibitions Panorama

  • Room 5 – The Persepolis Casts

  • Room 5 – Exhibitions Relics

  • Room 5 – The Cyrus Cylinder

See also

Notes

a. ^ Sculptures and applied art are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum houses earlier art, non-Western art, prints and drawings, and art of a later date is at Tate Modern. The National Gallery, holds the National Collection of Western European Art, with Tate Britain deposited with British Art from 1500.

b. ^ By the Act of Parliament it received a name – the British Museum. The origin of the name is not known; the word 'British' had some resonance nationally at this period, so soon after the Jacobite rebellion of 1745; it must be assumed that the Museum was christened in this light.[83]

c. ^ The estimated footage of the various libraries as reported to the Trustees has been summarised by Harris (1998), 3,6: Sloane 4,600, Harley 1,700, Cotton 384, Edwards 576, The Royal Library 1,890.

d. ^ This was perhaps rather unfortunate as the title to the house was complicated by the fact that part of the building had been erected on leasehold property (the Crown lease of which ran out in 1771); perhaps that is why George III paid such a modest price (nominally £28,000) for what was to become Buckingham Palace. See Howard Colvinet al. (1976), 134.

e. ^ Understanding of the foundation of the National Gallery is complicated by the fact that there is no documented history of the institution. At first the National Gallery functioned effectively as part of the British Museum, to which the Trustees transferred most of their most important pictures (ex. portraits). Full control was handed over to the National Gallery in 1868, after the Act of Parliament of 1856 established the Gallery as an independent body.

f. ^ Ashmole, the Keeper of the Greek and Roman Antiquities appreciated the original top-lighting of these galleries and removed the Victorian colour scheme, commenting:

The old Elgin Gallery was painted a deep terracotta red, which, though in some ways satisfactory, diminished its apparent size, and was apt to produce a depressing effect on the visitor. It was decided to experiment with lighter colours, and the walls of the large room were painted with what was, at its first application, a pure cold white, but which after a year's exposure had unfortunately yellowed. The small Elgin Room was painted with pure white tinted with prussian blue, and the Room of the metopes was painted with pure white tinted with cobalt blue and black; it was necessary, for practical reasons, to colour all the dadoes a darker colour[84]

g. ^ Ashmole had never liked the Duveen Gallery:

It is, I suppose, not positively bad, but it could have been infinitely better. It is pretentious, in that it uses the ancient Marbles to decorate itself. This is a long outmoded idea, and the exact opposite of what a sculpture gallery should do. And, although it incorporates them, it is out of scale, and tends to dwarf them with its bogus Doric features, including those columns, supporting almost nothing which would have made an ancient Greek artist architect wince. The source of daylight is too high above the sculptures, a fault that is only concealed by the amount of reflection from the pinkish marble walls. These are too similar in colour to the marbles...These half-dozen elementary errors were pointed out by everyone in the Museum, and by many scholars outside, when the building was projected.[85]

It was not until the 1980s that the installation, of a lighting scheme removed his greatest criticism of the building.

h. ^ The Cairo Museum has 200,000 artefacts, with leading collections reposited at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (100,000), Musée du Louvre (60,000), Petrie Museum (80,000), The Metropolitan Museum of art (26,000), University of Pennsylvania (42,000), Ashmolean Museum (40,000), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (40,000), Museo Egizio, Turin (32,500 objects).

References

  1. ↑ "Collection size". British Museum. 
  2. ↑ Mark Brown, arts correspondent. "The British Museum celebrates 255 years with record visitor numbers". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 January 2014. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "About us". British Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2013. 
  4. ↑ "Admission and opening times". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  5. ↑ "National man for British Museum". BBC News. 29 November 2001. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
  6. ↑ "Creating a Great Museum: Early Collectors and The British Museum". Fathom. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  7. ↑ "General history". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  8. ↑ Gavin R de Beer, Sir Hans Sloane and the British Museum (London, 1953).
  9. ↑ Letter to Charles Long (1823), BMCE115/3,10. Scrapbooks and illustrations of the Museum. (Wilson, David, M.) (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 346
  10. ↑ "The British Museum Images". Bmimages. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 38. 
  12. ↑ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 25
  13. ↑ The British Museum Opened, History Today
  14. ↑ BM, "Portrait plaque of Sir William Hamilton" British Museum
  15. ↑ BMCE1/5, 1175 (13 May 1820). Minutes of General Meeting of the Trustees, 1754–63. (Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History, p. 78)
  16. ↑ Wondrous Curiosities – Ancient Egypt at the British Museum, pp. 66–72 (Stephanie Moser, 2006, ISBN 0-226-54209-2)
  17. ↑ The Story of the British Museum, p. 24 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0-7141-2772-8)
  18. ↑ The British Museum – The Elgin Marbles, p. 85 (B.F.Cook, 2005, ISBN 0-7141-2134-7
  19. ↑ The British Museum – Assyrian Sculpture, pp. 6–7 (Julian Reade, 2004, ISBN 0-7141-2141-X)
  20. ↑ "King's Library". Bl. Retrieved 22 October 2011. 
  21. ↑ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 79
  22. ↑ The Story of the British Museum, p. 25 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0-7141-2772-8)
  23. ↑ Reade, Julian (2004). Assyrian Sculpture. London: The British Museum Press, p. 16
  24. ↑ Dickens, Charles, Jr. (1879). "Museum, British". Dickens's Dictionary of London. Retrieved 22 August 2007. "Beyond the new Lycian room is the READING ROOM: [...] ; circular structure; original suggestion of Thomas Watts, improved by A. (Sir A.) Panizzi, carried out by Mr. Sidney Smirke; [...]" 
  25. ↑ South from Ephesus – An Escape From The Tyranny of Western Art, pp. 33–34,(Brian Sewell, 2002, ISBN 1-903933-16-1)
  26. ↑ "The Electric Light in the British Museum – Excerpt from The Times, 25 November 18 December 1879 1879" (PDF). New York Times. 18 December 1879. Retrieved 12 November 2007. 
  27. ↑ Caygill, Marjorie (2006). The British Museum: 250 Years. London: The British Museum Press, p. 5
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Caygill, Marjorie. "Creating a Great Museum: Early Collectors and The British Museum". Fathom. Retrieved 13 November 2007. 
  29. ↑ Permanent establishment of the Research Laboratory (now the oldest such establishment in continuous existence) "History". British Museum. 
  30. ↑ Cook, B.F. (2005). The Elgin Marbles. London: The British Museum Press, pg 92
  31. ↑ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 270
  32. ↑ Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, p. 327
  33. ↑ "Room 25: Africa". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  34. ↑ "Search the collection database". Britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 15 January 2014. 
  35. ↑ Highlights British Museum, online research catalogues British Museum and online journals British Museum
  36. ↑ "Directors". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  37. ↑ "Museum governance". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  38. ↑ "Trustees". British Museum. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  39. ↑ Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999
  40. ↑ "Building London". UCL. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  41. ↑ Title deed of the 'perimeter properties' of The British Museum, BM Archives CA TD
  42. ↑ pp. 65–66, Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999
  43. ↑ Norman Foster and the British Museum, Norman Foster, Deyan Sudjic & Spencer de Grey 2001
  44. ↑ "British Museum Project". Waagner Biro. Retrieved 22 October 2011. 
  45. ↑ http://planningonline.camden.gov.uk/MULTIWAM/doc/Supporting%20Documents-2692368.pdf?extension=.pdf&id=2692368&location=VOLUME3&contentType=application/pdf&pageCount=1
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 "Cross calls for new debate on stored collections". Museums Association. 26 January 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2013. 
  47. ↑ Jennifer Huang and Deborah Kuo (31 January 2007). "British Museum feels privileged to put exhibition in Taiwan". Taiwan Headlines. Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). Retrieved 13 September 2010. 
  48. ↑ Higgins, Charlotte (5 July 2007). "British Museum plans £100m complex for blockbusters". The Guardian (London). p. 10. Retrieved 5 July 2007. 
  49. ↑ "Franks House". Britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 15 January 2014. 
  50. ↑ "Development since World War II (1945 – )". British Museum. Retrieved 26 March 2013. 
  51. ↑ Reported in the list of Sloane's collection given to his executors in 1753. Reproduced in MacGregor (1994a:29)
  52. ↑ "A British Museum Egyptologist's View: The Return of Egyptian Antiquities is Not an Issue". Touregypt. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  53. ↑ "Ancient Egypt and Sudan". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  54. ↑ "Amarna cuneiform tablets". UCL. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  55. ↑ Tony Kitto, "The celebrated connoisseur: Charles Townley, 1737–1805" Minerva Magazine May/June 2005, in connection with a British Museum exhibition celebrating the bicentennial of the Townley purchase. Townley marbles Burnley
  56. ↑ British Museum – Research
  57. ↑ "History of the Collection: Middle East". British Museu. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  58. ↑ "Museum With No Frontiers". Discover Islamic Art. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  59. ↑ "Study room page". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "Prints and Drawings galleries". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  61. ↑ Searches on 8 January 2012 return totals of 700,000, but many are in other departments
  62. ↑ Anita Singh (29 November 2011). "City fund manager in £1m Picasso giveaway". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 19 May 2012. 
  63. ↑ Babs.Guthrie. "Collection page". Untold London. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  64. ↑ "Embassy of Japan in the UK". Japan Embassy. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  65. ↑ "Department of Asia". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  66. ↑ "Department of Asia – Related Highlight Objects". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  67. ↑ "Room 33a: Amaravati". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  68. ↑ "Africa, Oceania and the Americas". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  69. ↑ "Coins and Medals Study Room". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  70. ↑ British Museum – Conservation and Scientific Research
  71. ↑ See the "Facilities and Services" tab on the home page for each department for details on each library; not all are kept at Bloomsbury. Anthropology Library
  72. ↑ "Paul Hamlyn Library". British Museum. Retrieved 22 October 2011. 
  73. ↑ "BMCo jobs". British Museum. 29 September 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2011. 
  74. ↑ "Greek and Roman Antiquities". British Museum. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 CBC Arts (26 March 2006). "Arts – British Museum returns aboriginal ashes to Tasmania". Cbc.ca. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  76. ↑ Breal's Silver Cup to be displayed at the New Acropolis Museum for one-year period from September 2012
  77. ↑ Kennedy, Maev (28 March 2002). "British Museum sold precious bronzes". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
  78. ↑ "Brits negotiate future of sacred tablets". Feeds.bignewsnetwork.com. 4 November 2004. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  79. ↑ "News – Getting the Nazi stolen art back". Channel 4. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2010. 
  80. ↑ Harding, Luke (10 April 2007). "Tajik president calls for return of treasure from British Museum". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
  81. ↑ "Egypt calls for return of Rosetta Stone". BBC News. 21 July 2003. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
  82. ↑ Larmer, Brook. 2010, "Caves of Faith", p. 136-138, National Geographic Magazine, June 2010.
  83. ↑ The question of the use of the term 'British' at this period has recently received some attention, e.g. Colley (1992), 85ff. There never has been a serious attempt to change the Museum's name.
  84. ↑ Quoted Ashmole (1994), 125
  85. ↑ Ashmole (1994), 126

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