Breastfeeding promotion

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
International Breastfeeding Symbol
breastfeeding song

Breastfeeding promotion refers to coordinated activities and policies to promote health among women, newborns and infants through breastfeeding.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life to achieve optimal health and development, followed by complementary foods while continuing breastfeeding for up to two years or beyond.[1] However, currently fewer than 40% of infants under six months of age are exclusively breastfed worldwide.[2] Public health awareness events such as World Breastfeeding Week,[3] as well as appropriate training of health professionals and effective planning,[4] aim to increase this number by communicating the importance of protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding so that infants receive appropriate nutrition.

Significance of breastfeeding promotion in the United States

Breastfeeding promotion is a movement that came about in the twentieth century in response to high rates of bottle-feeding among mothers, and in recognition of the many health benefits to both mothers and children that breastfeeding offers. While infant formula had been introduced in developed countries in the 1920s as a healthy way to feed one's children, the emergence of research on health benefits of breastfeeding precipitated the beginning of the breastfeeding promotion movement in the United States.[5] In the 1950s, La Leche League meetings began.[6] The United States began incorporating benefits specific to breastfeeding promotion into its Women, Infants, and Children program in 1972. In 1989, WIC state agencies began being required to spend funds targeted at breastfeeding support and promotion, including the provision of education materials in different languages and the purchase of breast pumps and other supplies.[7] In 1998, WIC state agencies were authorized to use funds earmarked for food to purchase breast pumps.[7]

Each year, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention release a Breastfeeding Report Card, detailing breastfeeding rates and promotion programs nationally and in all fifty states. In 2013, 76.5% of US women had ever breastfed their children; 16.4% exclusively breastfed up to six months of age. The Healthy People 2020 target for exclusive breastfeeding at six months is 25.5%.[8] The proportion of infants who were breastfed exclusively or non-exclusively at six months was 35% in 2000 and increased to 49% by 2010.[8]

Promotion techniques

Prenatal care

The discussion of breastfeeding during early prenatal care can positively effect a woman's likelihood to breastfeed her child. During regular checkups, a woman's physician, midwife or other healthcare provider can initiate a conversation about the benefits of breastfeeding, which can influence a woman to breastfeed her child for a longer period of time than she might have otherwise.[9] In addition, the involvement of lactation consultants in the prenatal visits of low-income women increases the likelihood that they will breastfeed.[10]

Peer support and counseling

Peer support techniques can be used before, during, and after pregnancy to encourage exclusive breastfeeding, particularly among groups with low breastfeeding rates. Breastfeeding peer counselors, who are ideally women who have breastfed who can provide information, support, and troubleshooting to mothers, have had a positive effect on the breastfeeding rate in American Indian populations.[11] Peer counseling has also been effective at increasing breastfeeding initiation rates and breastfeeding rates up to three months after birth in Hispanic populations in the United States. In addition, peer counseling can be effective in encouraging not only exclusive breastfeeding, but also breastfeeding rates in combination with formula, or "any breastfeeding".[12]

Peer counseling has had a strong effect on breastfeeding initiation and duration in developing countries such as Bangladesh and in areas where home births are more prevalent than hospital births.[13] When combined with nutrition support, particularly the WIC program in the United States, the presence of peer counselors can have a significant effect on incidence of breastfeeding among low-income women.[14]

Support during and immediately after childbirth can also help women initiate and continue breastfeeding while working through common concerns related to breastfeeding. This support can be non-medical, as doula care is. Culturally sensitive care (for example, care from a peer of a similar ethnic background) may be most effective at encouraging high-risk women to breastfeed.[15]

Lactation consultants

Lactation consultants are health care professionals whose primary goal is to promote breastfeeding and assist mothers with breastfeeding on an individualized or group basis. They work in a variety of health care settings, including hospitals, private doctor's offices, and public health clinics.[16] Lactation consultants are board-certified by the International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners.[17] The majority of lactation consultants hold a certification in another healthcare profession, often as a nurse, midwife, dietician or physician. However, there is no specific post-secondary education required to become a lactation consultant.[18]

In low-income contexts, interventions by breastfeeding consultants can be effective in promoting breastfeeding among high-risk populations. In one study, while exclusive breastfeeding rates were low in both control and intervention groups, black and Latina low-income women who had prenatal and postnatal support from a lactation consultant were more likely to breastfeed at 20 weeks than women who had not accessed this support.[10] In general, lactation consultants give a greater proportion of positive feedback to mothers regarding breastfeeding than either physicians or nurses do; the amount of positive advice that a first-time mother receives regarding breastfeeding from any health care provider can influence her likelihood to continue breastfeeding for a longer period of time.[19]

Social marketing and media

Social marketing has been shown to have an impact on women's decision to breastfeed their children. One study found that in years when Parents magazine ran formula advertisements at a higher frequency, the proportion of women who breastfed often decreased in the following year.[20] Conversely, women who are exposed to marketing that promotes breastfeeding are likely to breastfeed at higher rates.[21]

The growth of the Internet's influence has also had an impact on women's choices in infant feeding. The Internet has served as both a vector for formula advertisement and a means by which women can connect with other mothers to gain support and share experiences from breastfeeding.[22] In addition, social media is a category of advertising that did not exist when the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes was published; thus, while some advertising practices undertaken by formula companies on the Internet violated the Code, they did so in ways that could not have been anticipated.[22]

One social medium used to promote breastfeeding is video. These videos are often independently filmed and produced by lactation consultants who seek a new way to reach clients. While the efficacy of these videos has not been formally studied, they are a relatively new medium of conveying messages about breastfeeding to women.[23][24]

Cultural and social factors

Ethnicity and breastfeeding promotion

Breastfeeding initiation and duration varies significantly by race and ethnicity. The National Immunization Survey in the United States found that while 73.4% of all women in the United States initiated breastfeeding upon the birth of their child, only 54.4% of black, non-Hispanic women and 69.8% of American Indian and Alaska Native women did. White non-Hispanic women initiated breastfeeding 74.3% of the time and Hispanic women had an initiation rate of 80.4%.[25] However, one study found that in a low-income environment, foreign-born black women had a similar breastfeeding rate to Hispanic women; both of these rates were higher than that of non-Hispanic white women. In addition, native-born black women had a somewhat higher rate of breastfeeding than white women.[26]

Immigrant status in the United States is a predictor for breastfeeding adherence. In particular, the Hispanic paradox plays a role in the high breastfeeding rates observed among Hispanic/Latina women in the United States. Breastfeeding initiation rates among this population are higher for less acculturated immigrants; Hispanic women who have been in the United States for longer are less likely to breastfeed.[27] This disparity does not depend on age, income level, or education level; more acculturated Hispanics are likely to cite the same reasons for bottle-feeding as native-born white women do. In many cases, the connection that Hispanic women feel to their culture and its values can strongly influence their decision regarding breastfeeding.[28]

Access to prenatal care, socioeconomic status, cultural influence, and postpartum breastfeeding support all influence the differing rates of breastfeeding in different ethnic groups. In the United States, black women are more likely than white women to report that they "prefer bottle-feeding" to breastfeeding, and they are also more likely to be low-income and unmarried and to have lower levels of education. The decision to bottle-feed rather than breastfeed is of similar importance to low birth weight in predicting infant mortality, particularly in regards to the black-white infant mortality gap. Thus, breastfeeding promotion initiatives focused on black women should emphasize education and encourage black women to prefer breastfeeding to bottle-feeding.[29]

Socioeconomic influence

Socioeconomic status of mothers likely has a larger influence on breastfeeding adherence than race or ethnicity, as many women who are members of groups with low breastfeeding rates also have a low socioeconomic status. Among women born in the United States, women who are wealthier are more likely to breastfeed.[26] In addition, employment can influence the decision to breastfeed. When either parent was unemployed or held a lower-status occupation (such as labor or sales), their children were more likely to never have been breastfed.[30] In addition, women with public insurance or with no health insurance are more likely to never have breastfed their children, as are women who receive WIC.[30]

The time commitment of exclusive breastfeeding is also an economic constraint. The time required per week to breastfeed rather than bottle-feed or feed solids to children can be a significant burden for women without other childcare or who need to spend this time doing paid work.[31] However, some evidence suggests that the long-term benefits of exclusive breastfeeding outweigh the short-term costs. In the United States, workplace policy surrounding breastfeeding and parental leave often does not reflect these benefits. In addition, women are often unable to risk the loss of their jobs or loss of income due to breastfeeding adherence, so bottle-feeding is the best solution for the short-term.[32]

Worldwide efforts

La Leche League

Main article: La Leche League International

La Leche League International was founded in 1956 after breastfeeding rates in the United States dropped to about 20%.[6] Today, La Leche League has groups in all 50 states and many countries worldwide. Its goals include promoting understanding of breastfeeding as a part of child development and providing support and education for breastfeeding mothers.[33] La Leche League utilizes peer support groups in breastfeeding promotion in addition to supporting World Breastfeeding Week and other breastfeeding promotion initiatives. All La Leche League support group leaders have been specially trained and accredited in breastfeeding support.[34] La Leche League also operates an online help form, online discussion forums, and podcasts to enable remote access to breastfeeding support resources.[35]

Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative

Main article: Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative

The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) is an initiative of the World Health Organization and UNICEF that seeks to encourage initiation of breastfeeding among mothers who give birth to their children in hospitals. Facilities that achieve its "Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding" and implement the International code of Marketing Breast-milk Substitutes can be recognized as a Baby-Friendly facility by the BFHI.[36] In the United States, accreditation by the BFHI allows facilities to approach the Healthy People 2020 breastfeeding initiation goals. Worldwide, facilities that fulfill the requirements of the BFHI have been able to greatly increase their breastfeeding initiation rates among patients.[37] The guidelines of the BFHI have also been effective in increasing breastfeeding initiation rates among populations that typically have lower incidences of breastfeeding, such as black women. In one study, the rate of infants exclusively breastfeeding more than quintupled over a four year period upon the implementation of the BFHI.[38]

World Breastfeeding Week

World Breastfeeding Week is an international initiative of the World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action that seeks to promote exclusive breastfeeding.[39] Since 1992, it has been held each year from August 1 through August 7. In 2013, the theme of World Breastfeeding Week was "Breastfeeding Support: Close to Mothers"; past themes include early initiation of breastfeeding, the role of communication in breastfeeding, and breastfeeding policy.[40] World Breastfeeding Week provides informational materials about breastfeeding to healthcare providers and breastfeeding specialists via download or purchase. In addition, groups or individuals worldwide are able to "pledge" that they will undergo promotion activities related to World Breastfeeding Week in order to show their support for the initiative.[41]

WHO and UNICEF Initiatives

In addition to overseeing the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, the WHO and UNICEF have promoted breastfeeding on an international level. In 1990, the Innocenti Declaration On the Protection, Promotion, and Support of Breastfeeding was published after a joint meeting of WHO and UNICEF policymakers. The Innocenti Declaration set forth goals of exclusive breastfeeding up to 4–6 months, helping women be confident in their ability to breastfeed, and national policies regarding breastfeeding to be determined by individual countries, among other benchmarks.[42] In addition, UNICEF has published "Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding" which has been implemented in the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative.

The WHO and UNICEF also undertake independent research and reviews of recent research on breastfeeding in order to inform their future recommendations.[43] UNICEF, alongside its recommendations for nutrition for children and adults, advocates exclusive breastfeeding up to six months of age and complementary feeding up to two years of age for young children. With these guidelines in mind, UNICEF believes that with optimal breastfeeding practices, up to 1.4 million deaths of children under 5 in the developing world can be prevented.[44]

International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes

The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes was adopted in May 1981 by the Health Assembly of WHO and UNICEF.[45] It sets forth standards for health care systems, health care workers, and formula distributors regarding the promotion of formula in comparison to breastfeeding. It also delineates the responsibilities of formula manufacturers to monitor the safety of breast-milk substitutes and governments to monitor the implementation of policies that promote breastfeeding.[46] Although the Code has been successful in some settings, it has faced some opposition and non-compliance from the pharmaceutical industry.[47] This has caused hospitals in different regions of the world to face unsolicited advertising from breast-milk substitute manufacturers, which inhibits their ability to make unbiased, evidence-based recommendations to patients.[48][49]

Breastfeeding promotion projects by region

Africa

Uganda

In Uganda, campaigns to promote breastfeeding have been conducted in the mass media, including public service announcements via radio, television, posters, newspapers and magazines, leading to improved knowledge of the benefits of breastfeeding for infants and mothers among individuals and communities.[50]

Asia

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, prelacteal feeding is a common custom; this is the practice of feeding other foods to infants before breast milk during the first three days of life. A study found that in a region of rural Bangladesh, 89.3% of infants were fed prelacteally, and only 18.8% of these infants were exclusively breastfed between three days and three months postpartum. 70.6% of infants who were not fed prelacteally were exclusively breastfed up to three months.[51] Peer counseling and support programs have been shown to have a positive effect on exclusive breastfeeding rates in rural Bangladesh.[13]

Australia

Australia implemented its first national breastfeeding policy in 2010, aimed at protecting, promoting, supporting and monitoring breastfeeding through each level of government and in non-government organisation.[52]

Europe

Russia

In Russia, the Association of Natural Feeding Consultants (AKEV) promotes breastfeeding. AKEV provides mother-to-mother support, educates breastfeeding consultants as well as participates in public outreach about breastfeeding importance. AKEV is a regional group of the International Baby Food Action Network in Russia.[53]

North America

Canada

In Canada, the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick have mandated the implementation of the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative, known as the Baby-Friendly Initiative (BFI) in Canada, which is designed to support best practices in hospitals and communities to ensure informed feeding decisions and enable families to sustain breastfeeding. Other provinces and territories are implementing strategies around the BFI at regional and local levels. The Canadian adaptation of the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative is designed to promote breastfeeding through a variety of facilities and settings; thus, the word "Hospital" is omitted from its title.[54]

Cuba

The Cuban constitution contains a provision that allows one hour per day to breastfeed for women who return to their jobs after giving birth.[55] Cuba also operates regional maternity homes for women who are undergoing high-risk pregnancies; after giving birth, 80% of women in these facilities will breastfeed.[56]

United States

In the United States, breastfeeding promotion often relates to activities required to be carried out by state and local agencies using federal funds provided for nutrition education and administrative services under the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC program). States are required to use a portion of funds they receive to promote breastfeeding by postpartum mothers participating in the program.[57]

Controversies

Breastfeeding and HIV

It has been argued that, in hindsight, the campaign for the universal promotion of breastfeeding prior to the acknowledgement of HIV contraction via mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) fails to consider affected mothers in developing countries who have limited or no access to procedures that would minify the chance of spreading the virus to their young ones. Initiatives for a decreased percentage of infants contracting HIV include administering Antiretroviral therapy (ART) to their mothers and providing milk formula in hand with proper water sterilization techniques to prevent disease from contamination. The majority of opposition comes from local and global policy makers who argue about the non-feasibility of these projects. However others argue that there is limited say of the women directly affected, resulting in further segregation of women in developing nations from preventive aid and health care systems.[58]

Infant formula marketing in hospitals

In many hospitals, women who are being discharged after giving birth are given discharge packs branded by a formula company that include formula samples. Many breastfeeding experts argue that these commercial discharge packs decrease the likelihood that a woman will breastfeed and, if she does breastfeed, the length of time she will do so. Studies have found that marketing of infant formula in hospitals makes it likelier that a woman will breastfeed for a shorter amount of time due to the perceived convenience of bottle-feeding.[59][60] Formula companies often offer these discharge packs, as well as a general supply of formula, to hospitals at no cost, which can place some facilities at an economic disadvantage if they choose to give up these benefits.[61] However, not accepting free formula is one of the criteria that determine whether a facility can be certified as Baby-Friendly; thus, the economic burden of giving up access to formula for free can be a significant barrier for disadvantaged facilities that wish to achieve Baby-Friendly status.[61]

See also

References

  1. ↑ World Health Organization. Online Q&A: What is the recommended food for children in their very early years? Accessed 2 August 2011.
  2. ↑ World Health Organization. World Breastfeeding Week: 1-7 August 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.
  3. ↑ World Breastfeeding Week
  4. ↑ European Commission. Protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding in Europe: a blueprint for action. Luxembourg, 2004.
  5. ↑ Guasti, Cally (Fall 2012). "From Breastfeeding to Bottles". Journal of Global Health. Retrieved November 26, 2013. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 A Brief History of La Leche League International. La Leche League International. Accessed 17 October 2013.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Legislative History of Breastfeeding Promotion Requirements in WIC". USDA. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Breastfeeding Report Card: United States, 2013". CDC. Retrieved November 26, 2013. 
  9. ↑ O'Campo, Patricia; Faden, Ruth R.; Gielen, Andrea C.; Wang, Mei Cheng (1992). "Prenatal Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Duration: Recommendations for Prenatal Interventions". Birth 19 (4): 195–201. doi:10.1111/j.1523-536X.1992.tb00402.x. PMID 1472267. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bonuck, K. A.; Trombley, M; Freeman, K; McKee, D (2005). "Randomized, Controlled Trial of a Prenatal and Postnatal Lactation Consultant Intervention on Duration and Intensity of Breastfeeding up to 12 Months". Pediatrics 116 (6): 1413–26. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0435. PMID 16322166. 
  11. ↑ Long, D. G.; Funk-Archuleta, M. A.; Geiger, C. J.; Mozar, A. J.; Heins, J. N. (1995). "Peer Counselor Program Increases Breastfeeding Rates in Utah Native American WIC Population". Journal of Human Lactation 11 (4): 279–84. doi:10.1177/089033449501100414. PMID 8634104. 
  12. ↑ Chapman, Donna J.; Damio, Grace; Young, Sara; Pérez-Escamilla, Rafael (2004). "Effectiveness of Breastfeeding Peer Counseling in a Low-Income, Predominantly Latina Population". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 158 (9): 897. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.9.897. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Haider, R.; Kabir, I.; Huttly, S. R. A.; Ashworth, A. (2002). "Training Peer Counselors to Promote and Support Exclusive Breastfeeding in Bangladesh". Journal of Human Lactation 18 (1): 7–12. doi:10.1177/089033440201800102. PMID 11845742. 
  14. ↑ Grummer-Strawn, Laurence M.; Rice, Susan P.; Dugas, Kathy; Clark, Linda D.; Benton-Davis, Sandra (1997). "An evaluation of breastfeeding promotion through peer counseling in Mississippi WIC clinics". Maternal and Child Health Journal 1 (1): 35–42. doi:10.1023/A:1026224402712. PMID 10728224. 
  15. ↑ Kozhimannil, Katy B.; Attanasio, Laura B.; Hardeman, Rachel R.; O'Brien, Michelle (2013). "Doula Care Supports Near-Universal Breastfeeding Initiation among Diverse, Low-Income Women". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health 58 (4): 378. doi:10.1111/jmwh.12065. 
  16. ↑ What is an IBCLC?, International Lactation Consultant Association. Accessed November 4, 2013.
  17. ↑ Home Page, International Board of Lactation Consultant Examiners. Accessed November 4, 2013.
  18. ↑ Frequently Asked Questions, International Lactation Consultant Association. Accessed November 4, 2013.
  19. ↑ Humenick, S. S.; Hill, P. D.; Spiegelberg, P. L. (1998). "Breastfeeding and Health Professional Encouragement". Journal of Human Lactation 14 (4): 305–10. doi:10.1177/089033449801400414. PMID 10205449. 
  20. ↑ Foss, Katherine A; Southwell, Brian G (2006). "Infant feeding and the media: The relationship between Parents' Magazine content and breastfeeding, 1972-2000". International Breastfeeding Journal 1: 10. doi:10.1186/1746-4358-1-10. PMC 1489921. PMID 16722542. 
  21. ↑ Lindenberger, James H.; Bryant, Carol A. (2000). "Promoting Breastfeeding in the WIC Program: A Social Marketing Case Study". American Journal of Health Behavior 24: 53. doi:10.5993/AJHB.24.1.8. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Abrahams, S. W. (2012). "Milk and Social Media: Online Communities and the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes". Journal of Human Lactation 28 (3): 400–6. doi:10.1177/0890334412447080. PMID 22674963. 
  23. ↑ "Breastfeed Ya Baby". Retrieved November 25, 2013. 
  24. ↑ Lumukanda, Tanefer. "Teach Me How to Breastfeed". Retrieved November 25, 2013. 
  25. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010). "Racial and ethnic differences in breastfeeding initiation and duration, by state - National Immunization Survey, United States, 2004-2008". MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report 59 (11): 327–34. PMID 20339344. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Lee, Helen J.; Elo, Irma T.; McCollum, Kelly F.; Culhane, Jennifer F. (2009). "Racial/Ethnic Differences in Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration Among Low-Income Inner-City Mothers". Social Science Quarterly 90 (5): 1251–1271. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00656.x. PMC 2768401. PMID 20160902. 
  27. ↑ Ahluwalia, I. B.; d'Angelo, D.; Morrow, B.; McDonald, J. A. (2012). "Association between Acculturation and Breastfeeding among Hispanic Women: Data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System". Journal of Human Lactation 28 (2): 167–73. doi:10.1177/0890334412438403. PMID 22526345. 
  28. ↑ Gibson, Maria V.; Diaz, Vanessa A.; Mainous Ag, Arch G.; Geesey, Mark E. (2005). "Prevalence of Breastfeeding and Acculturation in Hispanics: Results from NHANES 1999-2000 Study". Birth 32 (2): 93–8. doi:10.1111/j.0730-7659.2005.00351.x. PMID 15918865. 
  29. ↑ Forste, R.; Weiss, J.; Lippincott, E. (2001). "The Decision to Breastfeed in the United States: Does Race Matter?". Pediatrics 108 (2): 291–6. doi:10.1542/peds.108.2.291. PMID 11483790. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Heck, KE; Braveman, P; Cubbin, C; Chávez, GF; Kiely, JL (2006). "Socioeconomic status and breastfeeding initiation among California mothers". Public Health Reports 121 (1): 51–9. PMC 1497787. PMID 16416698. 
  31. ↑ Smith, J. P.; Forrester, R. (2013). "Who Pays for the Health Benefits of Exclusive Breastfeeding? An Analysis of Maternal Time Costs". Journal of Human Lactation 29 (4): 547–55. doi:10.1177/0890334413495450. PMID 24106021. 
  32. ↑ Galtry, Judith (1997). "Suckling and Silence in the USA: The Costs and Benefits of Breastfeeding". Feminist Economics 3 (3): 1–24. doi:10.1080/135457097338636. 
  33. ↑ All About La Leche League. La Leche League International. Accessed 19 October 2013.
  34. ↑ Thinking About La Leche League Leadership? La Leche League International. Accessed October 19, 2013.
  35. ↑ Breastfeeding Help. La Leche League International. Accessed October 19, 2013.
  36. ↑ Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative. Baby-Friendly USA. Accessed October 19, 2013.
  37. ↑ The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative. UNICEF. Accessed October 19, 2013.
  38. ↑ Philipp, B. L.; Merewood, A.; Miller, L. W.; Chawla, N.; Murphy-Smith, M. M.; Gomes, J. S.; Cimo, S.; Cook, J. T. (2001). "Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative Improves Breastfeeding Initiation Rates in a US Hospital Setting". Pediatrics 108 (3): 677–81. doi:10.1542/peds.108.3.677. PMID 11533335. 
  39. ↑ "Home Page". World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  40. ↑ "World Breastfeeding Week". Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  41. ↑ "WBW 2013 Pledges". World Breastfeeding Week. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  42. ↑ "Innocenti Declaration". UNICEF. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  43. ↑ "Publications: Infant and Young Child Feeding". World Health Organization. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  44. ↑ "Infant and Young Child Feeding". UNICEF. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  45. ↑ "Publication: International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes". World Health Organization. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  46. ↑ "International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk substitutes". World Health Organization and UNICEF. Retrieved November 5, 2013. 
  47. ↑ Brady, JP (June 2012). "Marketing breast milk substitutes: problems and perils throughout the world". Archives of Disease in Childhood 97 (6): 529–532. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-301299. PMC 3371222. PMID 22419779. 
  48. ↑ McInnes, RJ (July 2007). "Who's keeping the code? Compliance with the international code for the marketing of breast-milk substitutes in Greater Glasgow". Public Health Nutrition 10 (7): 719–725. doi:10.1017/S1368980007441453. PMID 17381952. 
  49. ↑ Aguayo, VM (January 2003). "Monitoring compliance with the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes in west Africa: multisite cross sectional survey in Togo and Burkina Faso". BMJ 326 (7381): 127. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7381.127. PMC 140002. PMID 12531842. 
  50. ↑ Gupta, Neeru; Katende, Charles; Bessinger, Ruth (2004). "An Evaluation of Post-campaign Knowledge and Practices of Exclusive Breastfeeding in Uganda". Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition 22 (4): 429–39. doi:10.3329/jhpn.v22i4.293 (inactive January 8, 2014). PMID 15663176. 
  51. ↑ Sundaram, M. E.; Labrique, A. B.; Mehra, S.; Ali, H.; Shamim, A. A.; Klemm, R. D. W.; West Jr, K. P.; Christian, P. (2013). "Early Neonatal Feeding is Common and Associated with Subsequent Breastfeeding Behavior in Rural Bangladesh". Journal of Nutrition 143 (7): 1161–7. doi:10.3945/jn.112.170803. PMID 23677862. 
  52. ↑ Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing. Australian National Breastfeeding Strategy 2010-2015. Accessed 2 August 2011.
  53. ↑ http://www.akev.ru/content/view/30/68/[]
  54. ↑ "Summary: Integrated 10 Steps Practice Outcome Indicators for Hospitals and Community Health Services". Breastfeeding Committee for Canada. Retrieved November 26, 2013. 
  55. ↑ "Women's Work: Gender Equality in Cuba and the Role of Women in Building Cuba's Future". Center for Democracy in the Americas. Retrieved November 26, 2013. 
  56. ↑ Bragg, Michelle; Salke, Taraneh R, Cotton, Carol P, Jones, Debra Anne (2012). "No Child or Mother Left Behind; Implications for the US from Cuba's Maternity Homes". Health Promotion Perspectives 2 (1): 9–19. Retrieved November 26, 2013. 
  57. ↑  This article incorporates public domain material from the Congressional Research Service document "Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition" by Jasper Womach.
  58. ↑ Farmer, Paul E., Bruce Nizeye, Sara Stulac, and Salmaan Keshavjee. 2006. Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. PLoS Medicine, 1686-1691.
  59. ↑ Rosenberg, Kenneth D.; Eastham, Carissa A.; Kasehagen, Laurin J.; Sandoval, Alfredo P. (2008). "Marketing Infant Formula Through Hospitals: The Impact of Commercial Hospital Discharge Packs on Breastfeeding". American Journal of Public Health 98 (2): 290–5. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.103218. PMC 2376885. PMID 18172152. 
  60. ↑ Snell, B. J.; Krantz, M.; Keeton, R.; Delgado, K.; Peckham, C. (1992). "The Association of Formula Samples Given at Hospital Discharge with the Early Duration of Breastfeeding". Journal of Human Lactation 8 (2): 67–72. doi:10.1177/089033449200800213. PMID 1605843. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Merewood, A.; Philipp, B. L. (2000). "Becoming Baby-Friendly: Overcoming the Issue of Accepting Free Formula". Journal of Human Lactation 16 (4): 279–82. doi:10.1177/089033440001600402. PMID 11155598. 

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