1840s

Millennium:	2nd millennium
Centuries:	18th century – 19th century – 20th century
Decades:	1810s 1820s 1830s – 1840s – 1850s 1860s 1870s
Years:	1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849
Categories:	Births – Deaths – Architecture Establishments – Disestablishments

The 1840s decade ran from January 1, 1840, to December 31, 1849.

Politics and wars

International events

A wave of revolutions in Europe. Collectively known as the Revolution of 1848. This led to mass immigration of these refugees into industrial cities of the United States as well as to other locations around the world.

Pacific Islands

East Asia

China

On August 29, 1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking. One of the consequences was the cession of modern day Hong Kong Island to the British. Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997.

Other events:

• July 3, 1844 – The United States signs the Treaty of Wanghia with the Chinese Government, the first ever diplomatic agreement between China and the United States.
• 1845 – Ephraim Bee reveals that the Emperor of China has given him a special dispensation: that he has entrusted him with certain sacred and mysterious rituals through Caleb Cushing, the U.S. Commissioner to China, to "extend the work and influence of the Ancient and Honorable Order of E Clampus Vitus" in the New World.^[1]

Japan

• March 10, 1846 – Prince Osahito, fourth son of deceased Emperor Ninko of Japan, becomes Emperor Kōmei.

Southeastern Asia

Vietnam

New Guinea

• 1848 – British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea.

Australia and New Zealand

• First signing of the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi) on February 6, 1840 at Waitangi, Northland New Zealand. The treaty between the British Crown and Māori made New Zealand colony and is considered the founding point of modern New Zealand.
• July 20, 1845 – Charles Sturt enters the Simpson Desert in central Australia.
• May 25, 1846 – The Royal Geographical Society awards Paweł Edmund Strzelecki a Gold Medal "for exploration in the south eastern portion of Australia".^{[citation needed]}
• June 15, 1846 – Launceston Church Grammar School opens for the first time in Tasmania

Southern Asia

Afghanistan

The First Anglo-Afghan War had started in 1838, started by the British as a means of defending India (under British control at the time) from the Russian Empire's expansion into Central Asia.^[2] The British attempted to impose a puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah, but the regime was short lived and proved unsustainable without British military support. By 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul, the British army of approximately 4,500 troops (of which only 690 were European) and 12,000 camp followers was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All Europeans but one were killed; a few Indian soldiers survived also and crossed into India later.^[3] The British curbed their ambitions in Afghanistan following this humiliating retreat.

Afghanistan would remain independent (under the Barakzai dynasty) through the rest of the decade, ruled by Akbar Khan (1842-1845), and Dost Mohammad Khan (1845-1863).

India

• March 24, 1843 – Battle of Hyderabad: The Bombay Army led by Major General Sir Charles Napier defeats the Talpur Emirs, securing Sindh as a Province of British India.
• December 22–23, 1845 – Battle of Ferozeshah: British forces defeat Sikhs in Punjab.
• February 10, 1846 – First Anglo-Sikh War: British victory at the Battle of Sobraon.^[4]
• March 9, 1846 – The conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore.^[5] Kashmir is ceded to the British East India Company and the Koh-i-Noor diamond is surrendered to Queen Victoria.

Tibet

• May, 1841 – Start of the Sino-Sikh war.
• September, 1842 – The Treaty of Chushul ends the Sino-Sikh war.

Sri Lanka

• July 26, 1848 – Matale Rebellion against British rule in Sri Lanka.

Western Asia

Ottoman Empire

Lebanon

• September 10, 1840 – Ottoman and British troops bombard Beirut and land troops on the coast to pressure Egyptian Muhammad Ali to retreat from the country.
• October 14, 1840 – Maronite leader Bashir Shihab II surrenders to the British forces and goes into exile in Malta.

Romania

• June 21, 1848 – Wallachian Revolution of 1848: The Proclamation of Islaz is made public and a Romanian revolutionary government led by Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Christian Tell is created.

Persian Empire

• 1847 – The Ottoman Empire cedes Abadan Island to the Persian Empire.

Eastern Europe

Russia

• May 22, 1841 – The Georgian province of Guria revolts against the Russian Empire.
• 1848 – Admiral Nevelskoi explores the Strait of Tartary.
• November 16, 1849 – A Russian court sentences Fyodor Dostoevsky to death for anti-government activities linked to a radical intellectual group, the Petrashevsky Circle. Facing a firing squad on December 23 the group members are reprieved at the last moment and exiled to the katorga prison camps in Siberia.

Poland

Austrian Empire

• June 2–12, 1848 – Prague Slavic Congress brings together members of the Pan-Slavism movement.

Hungary

• March 15, 1848 – Start of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
• May 15, 1848 – 40,000 Romanians meet at the Blaj to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary.^[6]
• October 6, 1849 – The 13 Martyrs of Arad are executed after the Hungarian War of Independence.

Galicia

• February 18, 1846 – Beginning of the Galician peasant revolt.

Bulgaria

Northern Europe

Sweden

• March 8, 1844 – King Oscar I ascends to the throne of Sweden-Norway upon the death of his father Charles XVI/III John.

Denmark

• August 15, 1843 – Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opens in Copenhagen, Denmark.

• 1843 – The Danish government re-establishes the Althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
• March 24, 1848 – Start of the First Schleswig War (German: Schleswig-Holsteinischer Krieg or Three Years' War (Danish: Treårskrigen)) a military conflict in southern Denmark and northern Germany rooted in the Schleswig-Holstein Question, contesting the issue of who should control the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
• June 5, 1849 – Denmark becomes a constitutional monarchy.
• July 6, 1849 – The Danish Army beats the Prussian army at Fredericia, Jutland, thereby putting an end to the Prussian/Danish War until 1864.

United Kingdom

• September 16, 1840 – Joseph Strutt hands over the deeds and papers concerning the Derby Arboretum, which is to become England's first public park.
• August 10, 1842 – The Mines Act 1842 becomes law, prohibiting underground work for all women and boys under 10 years old in England.
• March 25, 1843 – Marc Isambard Brunel's Thames Tunnel, the first tunnel under the River Thames and the world's first bored underwater tunnel, is opened in London.^[5]
• May 4, 1843 – Natal is proclaimed a British colony.
• April – The Fleet Prison for debtors in London is closed.

• July – Public Health Act establishes Boards of Health across England and Wales, the nation's first public health law, giving cities broad authority to build modern sanitary systems.^[4]

Royalty

Politics and Law

Ireland

• July 29, 1848 – Young Irelander Rebellion: a nationalist revolt in County Tipperary against British rule is put down by the Irish Constabulary.^[4]

Western Europe

Germany

• May 18, 1848 – The first German National Assembly (Nationalversammlung) opens in Frankfurt, Germany.
• March – The Frankfurt Parliament completes its drafting of a liberal constitution and elects Frederick William IV emperor of the new German national state.
• April 2, 1849 – Revolutions of 1848 in the German states end in failure.
• May 3, 1849 – The May Uprising in Dresden, last of the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, begins.

Switzerland

• November 3–29, 1847 – Sonderbund War, a civil war in Switzerland in which General Guillaume-Henri Dufour's federal army defeats the Sonderbund (an alliance of seven Catholic cantons) with a total of only 86 deaths.

• September 12, 1848 – One of the successes of the Revolutions of 1848, the Swiss Federal Constitution, patterned on the US Constitution, enters into force, creating a federal republic and one of the first modern democratic states in Europe.

The Netherlands

• October 7, 1840 – Willem II becomes King of the Netherlands.
• November 3, 1848 – A greatly revised Dutch constitution is proclaimed.

Belgium

France

• March 1, 1840 – Adolphe Thiers becomes prime minister of France.
• September 30, 1840 – The frigate Belle-Poule arrives in Cherbourg, bringing back the remains of Napoléon from Saint Helena to France. He is buried in the Invalides.

• December 15, 1840 – The corpse of Napoleon is placed in the Hotel des Invalides in Paris.
• February 23, 1848 – François Guizot, Prime Minister of France, resigns. 52 people from the Paris mob are killed by soldiers guarding public buildings.
• February 24, 1848 – Louis Philippe, King of the French, abdicates in favour of his grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris, and flees to England after days of revolution in Paris. The French Second Republic is later proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob.
• May 15, 1848 – Radicals invade the French Chamber of Deputies.
• June 22, 1848 – The French government dissolves the national workshops in Paris, giving the workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces.
• August 28, 1848 – Mathieu Luis becomes the first black member to join the French Parliament as a representative of Guadaloupe.
• November 4, 1848 – France ratifies a new constitution. The Second Republic of France is set up, ending the state of temporary government lasting since the Revolution of 1848.
• December 10, 1848 – Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte is elected first president of the French Second Republic.
• December 20, 1848 – President Bonaparte takes his Oath of Office in front of the French National Assembly.
• January 1, 1849 – France issues Ceres, the nation's first postage stamp.

Southern Europe

Greece

• September 3, 1843 – Popular uprising in Athens, Greece, including citizens and military captains, to require from King Otto the issue of a liberal Constitution to the state, which has been governed since independence (1830) by various domestic and foreign business interests.

Italian Peninsula

• January 12, 1848 – The Palermo rising erupts in Sicily, against the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
• March 22, 1848 – Republic of San Marco comes into existence in Venice.
• January 21, 1849 – General elections are held in the Papal States.
• February 8, 1849 – The new Roman Republic is proclaimed.
• April 27, 1849 – Giuseppe Garibaldi enters Rome to defend it from the French troops of General Oudinot.
• May 15, 1849 – Troops of the Two Sicilies take Palermo and crush the republican government of Sicily.
• July 3, 1849 – French troops occupy Rome; the Roman Republic surrenders.

Spain

• September – The Second Carlist War, or the War of the Matiners or Madrugadores begins in Spain.
• May – The Second Carlist War ends in Spain.

Portugal

• May 16, 1846 – Revolutionary insurrection in Portugal (crushed by royalist troops on February 22, 1847)

Africa

• December 7, 1840 – David Livingstone leaves Britain for Africa.
• August 10, 1845 – The French Consul in Zanzibar (M. Broquant) receives the final letter sent by Eugène Maizan during his expedition into tropical Africa.^[7]

Algeria

• December 21, 1847 – Abd al-Kader surrenders and is imprisoned by the French.

Ethiopia

• February 7, 1842 – Battle of Debre Tabor: Ras Ali Alula, Regent of the Emperor of Ethiopia, defeats warlord Wube Haile Maryam of Semien.

South Africa

• June 4, 1842 – In South Africa, hunter Dick King rides into a British military base in Grahamstown to warn that the Boers have besieged Durban (he had left 11 days earlier). The British army dispatches a relief force.
• December 13, 1843 – Basutoland becomes a British protectorate.^[4]

Morocco

• August 14, 1844 – Abdelkader El Djezairi is defeated at Isly in Morocco; the sultan of Morocco soon repudiates his ally.

Liberia

• July 26, 1847 – Liberia gains independence.
• January 3, 1848 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts is sworn in as the first president of the independent African Republic of Liberia.

North America

Canada

• July 23, 1840 – The Province of Canada is created by the Act of Union.
• February 10, 1841 – Act of Union (1840) proclaimed in Canada.
• February 11, 1841 – The two colonies of The Canadas are merged into the United Province of Canada.
• March 11, 1848 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin became the first Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada to be democratically elected under a system of responsible government.
• April 25, 1849 – James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, the Governor General of Canada, signs the Rebellion Losses Bill, outraging Montreal's English population and triggering the Montreal Riots.

United States

• February 18, 1841 – The first ongoing filibuster in the United States Senate begins and lasts until March 11.
• May 11, 1841 – Lt. Charles Wilkes lands at Fort Nisqually in Puget Sound.
• August 16, 1841 – U.S. President John Tyler vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Enraged Whig Party members riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
• March – Commonwealth v. Hunt: the Massachusetts Supreme Court makes strikes and unions legal in the United States.
• May 19, 1842 – Dorr Rebellion: Militiamen supporting Thomas Wilson Dorr attack the arsenal in Providence, Rhode Island, but are repulsed.
• August 4, 1842 – The Armed Occupation Act is signed, providing for the armed occupation and settlement of the unsettled part of the Peninsula of East Florida.
• August 9, 1842 – The Webster-Ashburton Treaty is signed, settling the dispute over the location of the Maine–New Brunswick border between the United States and Canada, and establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.
• May 22, 1843 – The first major wagon train headed for the American Northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri on the Oregon Trail.
• January 23, 1845 – The United State Congress establishes a uniform date for federal elections, which will henceforth be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
• March 3, 1845 – Florida is admitted as the 27th U.S. state.
• March 4, 1845 – The United States Congress passes legislation overriding a presidential veto for the first time.
• December 2, 1845 – Manifest destiny: U.S. President James K. Polk announces to Congress that the Monroe Doctrine should be strictly enforced and that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.
• February 26, 1846 – The Liberty Bell is cracked while being rung for George Washington's birthday.
• June 15, 1846 – The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
• December 28, 1846 – Iowa is admitted as the 29th U.S. state.
• 1846 – The portion of the District of Columbia that was ceded by Virginia in 1790 is re-ceded to Virginia.
• March 1, 1847 – The state of Michigan formally abolishes the death penalty.
• March 4, 1847 – The 30th United States Congress is sworn into office.

• July 1, 1847 – The United States issues its first postage stamps (pictured).
• July 24, 1847 – After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City.

• January 31, 1848 – Construction of the Washington Monument begins in Washington, D.C.
• May 29, 1848 – Wisconsin is admitted as the 30th U.S. state.
• 1848 – The Illinois and Michigan Canal is completed.
• March 3, 1849 – Minnesota becomes a United States territory.
• March 3, 1849 – The United States Congress passes the Gold Coinage Act allowing the minting of gold coins.

Slavery

• 1840 – United States Census Bureau reports 6,000 free Negroes holding slaves in the nation.^{[citation needed]}
• March 9, 1841 – Amistad: The Supreme Court of the United States rules in the case that the Africans who seized control of the ship had been taken into slavery illegally.
• August 11 (Wednesday) Frederick Douglass spoke in front of the Anti-Slavery Covention in Nantucket, Massachusetts.
• May – Frederick Douglass's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave written by himself is published by the Boston Anti-Slavery Society.

Settlement

Native Americans

Presidents

The United States had five different Presidents during the decade. Only the 1880s would have as many. Martin Van Buren was President when the decade began, but was defeated by William Henry Harrison in the U.S. presidential election of 1840. Harrison's service was the shortest in history, starting with his inauguration on March 4, 1861, and ending when he died on April 4, 1861.

Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, replaced him as President (the first Presidential succession in U.S. history), and served out the rest of his term. Tyler spent much of his term in conflict with the Whig party. He ended his term having made an alliance with the Democrats, endorsing James K. Polk and signing the resolution to annex Texas into the United States.

In the Presidential election of 1844, James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay. During his presidency, Polk oversaw the U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War and subsequent annexation of what is now the southwest United States. He also negotiated a split of the Oregon Territory with Great Britain.

In the U.S. presidential election of 1848, Whig Zachary Taylor of Louisiana defeated Democrat Lewis Cass of Michigan. Taylor's term in office was cut short by his death in 1850.

Supreme Court

Other

California

• January 16, 1847 – John C. Frémont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory.
• January 30, 1847 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.
• February 5, 1847 – A rescue effort, called the First Relief, leaves Johnson's Ranch to save the ill-fated Donner Party. These California bound emigrants became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada in the winter of 1846–1847, and some had resorted to cannibalism to survive.
• January 24, 1848 – California Gold Rush: James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, California.
• August 19, 1848 – California Gold Rush: The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States that there is a gold rush in California (although the rush started in January).
• February 28, 1849 – Regular steamboat service from the west to the east coast of the United States begins with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay. The California leaves New York Harbor on October 6, 1848, rounds Cape Horn at the tip of South America, and arrives at San Francisco, California after the 4 month 21 day journey.
• November 13, 1849 – The Constitution of California is ratified in a general election.

Texas

• November – The city of Dallas, Texas is founded by John Neely Bryan.^[8]
• February 28, 1845 – The United States Congress approves the annexation of Texas.
• March 1, 1845 – President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas.
• July 4, 1845 – Delegates meet in Austin, Texas to create a state constitution.
• October 13, 1845 – A majority of voters in the Republic of Texas approve a proposed constitution, that if accepted by the United States Congress, will make Texas a U.S. state.
• December 27, 1845 – American newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan claims (in connection with the annexation of Texas) in The United States Magazine and Democratic Review that the United States should be allowed "the fullfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions". It is the second time he uses the term manifest destiny and will have a huge influence on American imperialism in the following century.
• December 29, 1845 – Texas is admitted as the 28th U.S. state.
• February 19, 1846 – The newly formed Texas state government is officially installed in Austin.

Mexican-American War

The Mexican–American War (1846–1848) was fought between Mexico and the United States of America. The latter emerged victorious and gained undisputed control over Texas while annexing portions of Arizona, California and New Mexico.

• March 5, 1842 – Mexican troops led by Rafael Vasquez invade Texas, briefly occupy San Antonio, and then head back to the Rio Grande. This is the first such invasion since the Texas Revolution.
• April 25, 1846 – Mexican–American War: Open conflict begins over border disputes of Texas' boundaries coining the term American Empire.
• May 8, 1846 – Mexican–American War, 1846 – Battle of Palo Alto: Zachary Taylor defeats a Mexican force north of the Rio Grande at Palo Alto, Texas in the first major battle of the war.
• May 13, 1846 – Mexican–American War: The United States declares war on Mexico.
• June 10, 1846 – Mexican–American War: The California Republic declares independence from Mexico.
• June 14, 1846 – Bear Flag Revolt: American settlers in Sonoma, California, start a rebellion against Mexico and proclaim the California Republic.
• July 7, 1846 – Acting on instructions from Washington, DC, Commodore John Drake Sloat orders his troops to occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena thus beginning the United States annexation of California.
• January 13, 1847 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the fighting in the Mexican–American War in California.
• February 22, 1847 – Mexican–American War, 1847 – The Battle of Buena Vista: 5,000 American troops under General Zachary Taylor use their superiority in artillery to drive off 15,000 Mexican troops under Antonio López de Santa Anna, defeating the Mexicans the next day.
• March 9, 1847 – Mexican–American War: United States forces under General Winfield Scott invade Mexico near Veracruz.
• March 29, 1847 – Mexican–American War: United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege.
• August 12, 1847 – U.S. troops of General Winfield Scott begin to advance along the aqueduct around Chalco and Xochimilco lakes in Mexico.
• August 20, 1847 – U.S. troops defeat Mexican troops in Valencia, Mexico.
• September 14, 1847 – U.S. general Winfield Scott enters Mexico City, marking the end of organized Mexican resistance in the US-Mexican War.

• May 19, 1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the Mexican–American War, is ratified by the Mexican government (cf. February 2, above).

Mexico

• 1845 – The Republic of Yucatán separates for a second time from Mexico.
• August 17, 1848 – Yucatán officially unites with Mexico.
• December 20, 1848 – Slavery is abolished in Réunion. This day is celebrated every year since 1981.
• 1848 – The Independent Republic of Yucatán joins Mexico in exchange for Mexican help in suppressing a revolt by the indigenous Maya population.

El Salvador

• February – El Salvador proclaims iteself an independent republic, bringing an end to the (already de facto defunct) Federal Republic of Central America.

Nicaragua

Costa Rica

Puerto Rico

Honduras

Caribbean

Barbados

• June 6, 1843 – In Barbados, Samuel Jackman Prescod is the first non-white person elected to the House of Assembly.

Dominican Republic

• February 27, 1844 – The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.
• November 6, 1844 – The Dominican Republic drafts its first Constitution.

Haiti

• March 1, 1847 – Faustin Soulouque declares himself Emperor of Haiti.

Trinidad

• May 30, 1845 – Fatel Razack (Fath Al Razack, "Victory of Allah the Provider", Arabic: قتح الرزاق) is the first ship to bring indentured labourers from India to Trinidad, landing in the Gulf of Paria with 227 immigrants.^[9]

South America

Brazil

• July 23, 1840 – Pedro II is declared "of age" prematurely and begins to reassert central control in Brazil.
• July 18, 1841 – Coronation ceremony of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro.
• January 20, 1843 – Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão, Marquis of Paraná, becomes de facto first prime minister of the Empire of Brazil.
• September 4, 1843 – The Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil marries Dona Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies in a state ceremony in Rio de Janeiro Cathedral.

Riograndense Republic

Uruguay

• February 3, 1843 – Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.

Paraguay

• 1844 – Carlos Antonio López becomes dictator of Paraguay.

Argentina

• September 18, 1845 – Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata formally declared.
• November 20, 1845 – Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata: Battle of Vuelta de Obligado: The Argentine Confederation is narrowly defeated by an Anglo-French fleet on the waters of the Paraná River but Argentina attracts political support in South America.

Falkland Islands

Venezuela

• 1843 – Germans from the Black Forest region of Southern Baden migrate to Venezuela.

Peru

• April 20, 1845 – Ramón Castilla becomes president of Peru.

Ecuador

Chile

• May 23, 1843 – Chile takes possession of the Strait of Magellan.

Science and Technology

Astronomy

• April – Eta Carinae is temporarily the second-brightest star in the night sky.
• September 23, 1846 – Discovery of Neptune: The planet is observed for the first time by German astronomers Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest as predicted by the British astronomer John Couch Adams and the French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier.
• September 16, 1848 – William Cranch Bond and William Lassell discover Hyperion, Saturn's moon.

Mechanical Engineering

Photography

Electricity

Telegraph

• The first electrical telegraph sent by Samuel Morse on May 24, 1844 from Baltimore to Washington, D.C..

Computers

• 1843 – Ada Lovelace translates and expands Menabrea's notes on Charles Babbage's analytical engine, including an algorithm for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, regarded as the world's first computer program.^[10][11][12]

Chemistry

• June 15, 1844 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.
• 1844 – Swedish chemistry professor Gustaf Erik Pasch invents the safety match.
• 1846 – Abraham Pineo Gesner develops a process to refine a liquid fuel, which he calls kerosene, from coal, bitumen or oil shale.

Geology

• 1840 – Louis Agassiz publishes his Etudes sur les glaciers ("Study on Glaciers", 2 volumes), the first major scientific work to propose that the Earth has seen an ice age.

Physics

• 1840 – The first English translation of Goethe's Theory of Colours by Charles Eastlake is published.
• 1842 – Julius Robert von Mayer proposes that work and heat are equivalent.^[13]
• October 16, 1843 – William Rowan Hamilton discovers the calculus of quaternions and deduces that they are non-commutative.^[14]
• 1843 – James Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat.^[15]

Biology

• July 3, 1844 – The last definitely recorded pair of Great Auks are killed on the Icelandic island of Eldey.
• 1844 – The anonymously written Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation is published and paves the way for the acceptance of Darwin's book The Origin of Species.

Paleontology

• 1842 – English palaeontologist Richard Owen coins the name Dinosauria, hence the Anglicized dinosaur.^[16]

Psychology

• November 13, 1841 – Scottish surgeon James Braid first sees a demonstration of animal magnetism by Charles Lafontaine in Manchester, which leads to his study of the phenomenon that he (Braid) eventually calls hypnotism.

Archaeology

Sociology

Economics

• June 20, 1842 – Anselmo de Andrade, Portuguese economist and politician, is born in Vila Real de Santo António.
• August 28, 1844 – Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx meet in Paris, France.
• 1845 – Friedrich Engels' treatise The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 is published in Leipzig as Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England.
• June 1, 1847 – The first congress of the Communist League is held in London.

• February 21, 1848 – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto (Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei) in London.

Medicine

• March 30, 1842 – Anesthesia is used for the first time in an operation (Dr. Crawford Long performed the operation using ether).
• December 27, 1845 – Anesthesia is used for childbirth for the first time (Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia).
• November 4–8, 1847 – James Young Simpson discovers the anesthetic properties of chloroform and first uses it, successfully, on a patient, in an obstetric case in Edinburgh.^[17][18]
• January 23, 1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M.D. by the Medical Institute of Geneva, New York, thus becoming the United States' first woman doctor.

Technology

Exploration

Antarctica

• January 19, 1840 – Captain Charles Wilkes' United States Exploring Expedition sights what becomes known as Wilkes Land in the southeast quadrant of Antarctica, claiming it for the United States and providing evidence that Antarctica is a complete continent.^[19]
• January 21, 1840 – Dumont D'Urville discovers Adélie Land in Antarctica, claiming it for France.^[20]
• January 27, 1841 – The active volcano Mount Erebus in Antarctica is discovered and named by James Clark Ross.^[21]
• January 28, 1841 – Ross discovers the "Victoria Barrier", later known as the Ross Ice Shelf. On the same voyage, he discovers the Ross Sea, Victoria Land and Mount Terror.
• January 23, 1842 – Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross, charting the eastern side of James Ross Island, reaches a Farthest South of 78°09'30"S.^[22]
• January 6, 1843 – Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross discovers Snow Hill Island.

Transportation

Rail

Flight

Automobile

Steam power

• July 4, 1840 – The Cunard Line's 700-ton wooden paddlewheel steamer RMS Britannia departs from Liverpool, bound for Halifax, Nova Scotia on the first steam transatlantic passenger mail service.^[23]

• July 19, 1843 – Isambard Kingdom Brunel's SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol; it will be the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean.^[24]
• 1843 – The steam powered rotary printing press is invented by Richard March Hoe in the United States.^[25]
• July 26–August 10, 1845 – Isambard Kingdom Brunel’s iron steamship Great Britain makes the Transatlantic Crossing from Liverpool to New York, the first screw propelled vessel to make the passage.^[26][27]

Other inventions

• October 5, 1842 – Josef Groll brews the first pilsner beer in the city of Pilsen, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic).
• September 10, 1846 – Elias Howe is awarded the first United States patent for a sewing machine using a lockstitch design.^[28]

Commerce

• In the mid-1840s several harvests failed across Europe, which caused famines. Especially the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849) was severe and caused a quarter of Ireland's population to die or immigrate to the United States, Canada and Australia.
• The Panic of 1837 triggered by the failing banks in America is followed by a severe depression lasting until 1845.
• May 6, 1840 – The Penny Black, the world's first postage stamp, becomes valid for the pre-payment of postage.
• August 10, 1840 – Fortsas hoax: A number of book collectors gather in Binche, Belgium, to attend a non-existent book auction of the late "Count of Fortsas".
• December – The world's first Christmas cards, commissioned by Sir Henry Cole in London from the artist John Callcott Horsley, are sent.^[29]
• 1843 – The export of British textile machinery and other equipment is allowed.
• 1844 – Annual British iron production reaches 3 million tons.
• January 4, 1847 – Samuel Colt sells his first revolver pistol to the U.S government.
• The California Gold Rush follows on the heels of the Mexican–American War, bringing tens of thousands of immigrants to California and eliminating the United States' dependence on foreign gold.

Civil rights

Women's rights

• July 19, 1848 – Women's rights, 1848 – Seneca Falls Convention: The 2-day Women's Rights Convention opens in Seneca Falls, New York and the "Bloomers" are introduced at the feminist convention.

Popular culture

Literature

• Charles Dickens publishes The Old Curiosity Shop, Barnaby Rudge, A Christmas Carol, Martin Chuzzlewit, Dombey and Son and David Copperfield.
• Nikolai Gogol's Dead Souls (Russian: Мёртвые души, Myortvyje dushi) is published in 1842.
• Søren Kierkegaard publishes his philosophical book Enten ‒ Eller (Either/Or) in 1843.
• Alexandre Dumas publishes Les Trois Mousquetaires (The Three Musketeers) in 1844 and Le Comte de Monte-Cristo (The Count of Monte Cristo) in 1844/45.
• Edgar Allan Poe releases The Raven in 1845, earning $10 for the piece.
• Charlotte Brontë's second novel, Jane Eyre, is published in 1847.
• Emily Brontë publishes Wuthering Heights, also in 1847.
• William Makepeace Thackeray publishes Vanity Fair in 1848.
• July 17, 1841 – First edition of the humorous magazine Punch published in London.^[30]
• 1843 – Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Tell-Tale Heart is first published.
• January 29, 1845 – "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe is published for the first time (New York Evening Mirror).
• 1845 – Elizabeth Barret Browning writes her Sonnets from the Portuguese (1845–1846).
• 1845 – Heinrich Hoffmann publishes a book (Lustige Geschichten und drollige Bilder) introducing his character Struwwelpeter, in Germany.
• October 16, 1847 – Charlotte Brontë publishes Jane Eyre under the pen name of Currer Bell.
• December 14, 1847 – Emily Brontë and Anne Brontë publish Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey, respectively, in a 3-volume set under the pen names of Ellis Bell and Acton Bell.
• 1848 – Elizabeth Gaskell publishes Mary Barton anonymously.

Theatre

• February 6, 1843 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show, at the Bowery Amphitheatre in New York City.

Music

• February 11, 1840 – Gaetano Donizetti's opera La fille du régiment premieres in Paris.
• June 28, 1841 – Ballet Giselle first presented by the Ballet du Théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique at the Salle Le Peletier in Paris, France.
• March 9, 1842 – Giuseppe Verdi's third opera Nabucco premieres in Milan; its success establishes Verdi as one of Italy's foremost opera writers.
• February 11, 1843 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi alla prima crociata premieres at La Scala in Milan.
• November 3, 1844 – Giuseppe Verdi's I due Foscari debuts at Teatro Argentina, Rome.
• March 13, 1845 – The Violin Concerto by Felix Mendelssohn premieres in Leipzig, with Ferdinand David as soloist.
• July 7, 1845 – Jules Perrot presents the ballet divertissement Pas de Quatre to an enthusiastic London audience.
• June 28, 1846 – The Saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax.^[31]
• March 14, 1847 – Verdi's opera Macbeth premieres at Teatro della Pergola in Florence, Italy.
• 1848 – The Shaker song Simple Gifts is written by Joseph Brackett in Alfred, Maine.
• 1848 – Richard Wagner begins writing the libretto that will become Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung).

Sports

• March 2, 1842 – Gaylad, ridden by Tom Olliver, wins the Grand National at Aintree Racecourse.
• September 25–September 27, 1844 – The first ever international cricket match is played in New York City, United States v Canadian Provinces.
• October 21, 1845 – The New York Herald becomes the first newspaper to mention the game of baseball.
• October 22, 1845 – The New York Morning News becomes the first newspaper to include a box-score of a baseball game.

Fashion

Art

• 1840 – J. M. W. Turner first displays his painting The Slave Ship.

Religion and Philosophy

• The American Transcendentalism movement is in full form mostly during this decade.
• February 1840 – The Rhodes blood libel is made against the Jews of Rhodes.
• February 5, 1840 – The murder of a Capuchin friar and his Greek servant leads to the Damascus affair, a highly publicized case of blood libel against the Jews of Damascus.
• June 6, 1841 Marian Hughes becomes the first woman to take religious vows in communion with the Anglican Province of Canterbury since the Reformation, making them privately to E. B. Pusey in Oxford.^[32]
• July – Scottish missionary David Livingstone arrives at Kuruman in the Northern Cape, his first posting in Africa.
• May 18, 1843 – The Disruption in Edinburgh of the Free Church of Scotland from the Church of Scotland.
• October 16, 1843 – Søren Kierkegaard's philosophical book Fear and Trembling is first published.
• March 21, 1844 – The Bahá'í calendar begins.
• March 23, 1844 – Edict of Toleration, allowing Jews to settle in the Holy Land.
• May 23, 1844 – Persian Prophet The Báb privately announces his revelation to Mullá Husayn, just after sunset, founding the Bábí Faith (later evolving into the Bahá'í Faith as the Báb intended) in Shiraz, Persia (now Iran). Contemporaneously, on this day in nearby Tehran, was the birth of `Abdu'l-Bahá; the eldest Son of Bahá'u'lláh, Prophet-Founder of the Bahá'í Faith, the inception of which, the Báb's proclaimed His own mission was to herald. `Abdu'l-Bahá Himself was later proclaimed by Bahá'u'lláh to be His own successor, thus being the third "central figure" of the Bahá'í Faith.
• June 27, 1844 – Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, and his brother Hyrum, are killed in Carthage Jail, Carthage, Illinois by an armed mob. John Taylor, future president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is severely injured but survives.
• August 8, 1844 – During a meeting held in Nauvoo, Illinois, the Quorum of the Twelve, headed by Brigham Young, is chosen as the leading body of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
• October 22, 1844 – This second date, predicted by the Millerites for the Second Coming of Jesus, leads to the Great Disappointment. The Seventh-day Adventist Church denomination of the Christian religion believe this date to be the starting point of the Investigative judgment just prior to the Second Coming of Jesus as declared in the 26th of 28 fundamental doctrines of Seventh-day Adventists.^[33]
• October 23, 1844 – The Báb publicly proclaimed to be the promised one of Islam (the Qá'im, or Mahdi). He is also considered to be simultaneously the return of Elijah, John the Baptist, and the "Ushídar-Máh" referred to in the Zoroastrian scriptures.^[34] He announces to the world the coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, 1844 – the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, 1844 – whose claims include being the return of Jesus.
• October 9, 1845 – The eminent and controversial Anglican, John Henry Newman, is received into the Roman Catholic Church.
• February 10, 1846 – Many Mormons begin their migration west from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Great Salt Lake, led by Brigham Young.
• June 16, 1846 – Pope Pius IX succeeds Pope Gregory XVI as the 255th pope. He will reign for 31½ years (the longest definitely confirmed).
• September 19, 1846 – The Virgin Mary is said to have appeared to two children in La Salette, France.
• 1848 – John Bird Sumner becomes archbishop of Canterbury.
• March 28, 1849 – Four Christians are ordered burnt alive in Antananarivo, Madagascar by Queen Ranavalona I and 14 others are executed.

Disasters, natural events, and notable mishaps

• January 13, 1840 – The steamship Lexington burns and sinks in icy waters, four miles off the coast of Long Island; 139 die, only four survive.
• May 7, 1840 – The Great Natchez Tornado: A massive tornado strikes Natchez, Mississippi during the early afternoon hours. Before it is over, 317 people are killed and 109 injured. It is the second deadliest tornado in U.S. history.
• January 30, 1841 – A fire ruins and destroys two-thirds of the villa (modern-day city) of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.
• February 20, 1841 – The Governor Fenner, carrying emigrants to the United States, sinks off Holyhead (Wales) with the loss of 123 lives.
• March 12, 1841 – SS President under the command of the legendary captain Richard Roberts founders in rough seas with all passengers and crew lost.
• October 30, 1841 – A fire at the Tower of London destroys its Grand Armoury and causes a quarter of a million pounds worth of damage.^[35]
• October 29, 1842 – The Iberian Peninsula is struck by a category 2 hurricane.
• 1842 – Dzogchen Monastery is almost completely destroyed by an earthquake.

• February 28, 1844 – A gun on the USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing 2 United States Cabinet members and several others.
• June–July – The Great Flood of 1844 hits the Missouri River and Mississippi River.
• February 7, 1845 – In the British Museum, a drunken visitor smashes the Portland Vase, which takes months to repair.
• April 10, 1845 – A great fire destroys much of the American city of Pittsburgh.
• May 2, 1845 – A suspension bridge collapses in Great Yarmouth, England, leaving around 80 dead, mostly children.^[36]
• May 19, 1845 – HMS Erebus and HMS Terror with 134 men, comprising Sir John Franklin's expedition to find the Northwest Passage, sail from Greenhithe on the Thames. They will last be seen in August entering Baffin Bay.^[37]
• April 25, 1847 – The brig Exmouth carrying Irish emigrants from Derry bound for Quebec is wrecked off Islay with only three survivors from more than 250 on board.^[38][39]
• August 24, 1848 – The U.S. barque Ocean Monarch is burnt out off the Great Orme, North Wales, with the loss of 178, chiefly emigrants.
• May 3, 1849 – The Mississippi River levee at Sauvé's Crevasse breaks, flooding much of New Orleans, Louisiana.
• May 10, 1849 – The Astor Place Riot takes place in Manhattan over a dispute between two Shakespearean actors. Over 20 people are killed.
• May 17, 1849 – The St. Louis Fire starts when a steamboat catches fire and nearly burns down the entire city.
• 1849 – Seven of the "best known" opium clippers go missing: Sylph, Coquette, Kelpie, Greyhound, Don Juan, Mischief, and Anna Eliza.^[40]

Cholera

The cholera epidemic struck throughout Europe.

• 1846 – Cholera epidemic in England.
• 1848 – A cholera epidemic in New York kills 5,000.

Establishments

• April 15, 1840 – King's College Hospital opens in London.
• February 4, 1841 – First known reference to Groundhog Day, in the diary of a James Morris.
• July 18, 1841 – The sixth bishop of Calcutta, Daniel Wilson, and Dr. James Taylor, Civil Surgeon at Dhaka, establish the first modern educational institution in the Indian subcontinent, Dhaka College.
• September –The Economist newspaper is first published in London.
• 1843 – The Friend, a Quaker weekly, is first published in London.
• 1843 – Saint Louis University School of Law becomes the first law school west of the Mississippi River.
• January 15, 1844 – The University of Notre Dame receives its charter from Indiana.
• June 6, 1844 – George Williams founds the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in London.
• December 21, 1844 – The Rochdale Pioneers commence business at their cooperative in Rochdale, England.
• February 1, 1845 – Anson Jones, President of the Republic of Texas, signs the charter officially creating Baylor University. Baylor is the oldest university in the State of Texas operating under its original name.
• August 28, 1845 – The journal Scientific American begins publication.
• October 10, 1845 – In Annapolis, Maryland, the Naval School (later renamed the United States Naval Academy) opens with fifty midshipmen and seven professors.
• 1845 – Eugénie Luce founds the Luce Ben Aben Schol in Algiers.^[41]
• October 1, 1846 – Christ College, Tasmania, opens with the hope that it would develop along the lines of an Oxbridge college and provide the basis for university education in Tasmania. By the 21st century it will be the oldest tertiary institution in Australia.
• April 5, 1847 – The world's first municipally-funded civic public park, Birkenhead Park in Birkenhead on Merseyside in England, is opened.^[42]
• October 12, 1847 – German inventor and industrialist Werner von Siemens founds Siemens AG & Halske.
• February 2, 1848 – John Henry Newman founds the first Oratory in the English-speaking world when he establishes the Birmingham Oratory at 'Maryvale', Old Oscott, England.
• November 1, 1848 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the first medical school for women, The Boston Female Medical School (which later merges with Boston University School of Medicine), opens.
• November – Austin College receives a charter in Huntsville, Texas.

People

World leaders

• Emperor Daoguang (Qing Dynasty)
• Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
• Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
• Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
• King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
• King Frederick William IV of Prussia (Prussia)
• King Leopold I of Belgium (Belgium)
• Pope Gregory XVI
• Pope Pius IX
• Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
• Bahadur Shah Zafar (Mughal Empire)
• Queen Isabella II (Spain)
• King Charles XIV John (Sweden)
• King Oscar I (Sweden)
• Queen Victoria (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
• Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
• Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
• Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
• President Martin Van Buren (United States)
• President William Henry Harrison (United States)
• President John Tyler (United States)
• President James K. Polk (United States)
• President Zachary Taylor (United States)
• President Sam Houston (Republic of Texas)
• President Anson Jones (Republic of Texas)
• Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (Ottoman Empire)
• Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)

1. Mohammad Shah Qajar, (b. 1810 – d. 1848) Shah from 1834 to 1848
2. Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896

References

• Robert Sobel Conquest And Conscience: The 1840s (1971)

1. ↑ "E. Clampus Vitus". 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-01. 
2. ↑ "When Will the Great Game End?". orientalreview.org. 15 November 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2012. 
3. ↑ Gandamak at britishbattles.com
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 268–269. ISBN 0-7126-5616-2. 
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN 0-14-102715-0. 
6. ↑ Stoica, Vasile (1919). The Roumanian Question: The Roumanians and their Lands. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Printing Company. p. 23. 
7. ↑ Giraud, Victor (1890). Les lacs de l'Afrique Équatoriale : voyage d'exploration exécuté de 1883 à 1885 (in French). Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cie. p. 31. 
8. ↑ Dallas Historical Society (2002-12-30). "Dallas History". Retrieved 2006-04-20. 
9. ↑ When the British decided they were going to bring Indians to Trinidad this year, most of the traditional British ship owners did not wish to be involved. The ship was originally named Cecrops, but upon delivery was renamed to Fath Al Razack. The ship left Calcutta on February 16.
10. ↑ Fuegi, John; Francis, Jo (October–December 2003). "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 25 (4): 16–26. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887.  |accessdate= requires |url= (help)
11. ↑ "Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace". Archived from the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-11. 
12. ↑ Menabrea, L. F. (1843). "Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage". Scientific Memoirs 3. Archived from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-01. 
13. ↑ von Mayer, J. R. (1842). "Bemerkungen über die Kräfte der unbelebten Nature ("Remarks on the forces of inorganic nature")". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 43: 233–40. doi:10.1002/jlac.18420420212. Retrieved 2012-01-27. 
14. ↑ "William Rowan Hamilton Plaque". Geograph. 2007. Retrieved 2011-03-08. 
15. ↑ Joule, J. P. (1843). "On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat". Abstracts of the Papers Communicated to the Royal Society of London 5: 839. doi:10.1098/rspl.1843.0196. Retrieved 2012-01-27. 
16. ↑ Owen, R. (1842). "Report on British Fossil Reptiles." Part II. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Plymouth, England.
17. ↑ First communicated to the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh, November 10, and published in a pamphlet, Notice of a New Anæsthetic Agent, in Edinburgh, November 12.
18. ↑ Gordon, H. Laing (2002). Sir James Young Simpson and Chloroform (1811–1870). Minerva Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4102-0291-8. Retrieved 2011-11-11. 
19. ↑ "Antarctic Exploration — Chronology". Quark Expeditions. 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-10-20. 
20. ↑ Guillon, Jacques (1986). Dumont d'Urville. Paris: France-Empire. ISBN 2-7048-0472-9. 
21. ↑ Ross, Voyage to the Southern Seas, 1, pp. 216–8.
22. ↑ Coleman, E. C. (2006). The Royal Navy in Polar Exploration, from Frobisher to Ross. Stroud: Tempus Publishing. p. 335. ISBN 0-7524-3660-0. 
23. ↑ Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 263–264. ISBN 0-7126-5616-2. 
24. ↑ "Royal Visit". The Bristol Mirror. 20 July 1843. pp. 1–2. 
25. ↑ Meggs, Philip B. (1998). A History of Graphic Design (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5.  It receives U.S. Patent 5,199 in 1847 and is placed in commercial use the same year.
26. ↑ Fox, Stephen (2003). Transatlantic: Samuel Cunard, Isambard Brunel, and the Great Atlantic Steamships. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019595-3. 
27. ↑ "Great Britain". The Ships List. Retrieved 2010-10-01. 
28. ↑ U.S. Patent 4,750
29. ↑ Buday, György (1992). "The history of the Christmas card". Omnigraphics: 8. 
30. ↑ Spielmann, Marion Harry (1895). The History of "Punch". p. 27. 
31. ↑ Hart, Hugh (2010-06-28). "June 28, 1846: Parisian Inventor Patents Saxophone". Wired. Retrieved 2011-12-07. 
32. ↑ Bonham, Valerie (2004). "Hughes, Marian Rebecca (1817–1912)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2010-11-26.  (subscription or UK public library membership required)
33. ↑ http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html
34. ↑ Shoghi, Effendi (1944). God Passes By. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 58. ISBN 0-87743-020-9. Archived from the original on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2012-03-06. 
35. ↑ Weinreb, Ben; Hibbert, Christopher (1995). The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan. p. 287. ISBN 0-333-57688-8. 
36. ↑ "The Great Yarmouth Suspension Bridge Disaster – May 2nd 1845". Broadland Memories. Retrieved 2010-10-14. 
37. ↑ The Hutchinson Factfinder. Helicon. 1999. p. 549. ISBN 1-85986-000-1. 
38. ↑ "The Exmouth - a terrible tragedy on Islay". Isle of Islay. 2011. Retrieved 2012-07-131.  Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
39. ↑ "The Exmouth shipwreck off the Antrim Coast, Northern Ireland". My Secret Northern Ireland. Retrieved 2012-07-131.  Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
40. ↑ Lubbock, Basil (1933). The Opium Clippers. Boston, MA: Charles E. Lauriat Co. p. 310. 
41. ↑ "Luce Ben Aben School of Arab Embroidery I, Algiers, Algeria". World Digital Library. 1899. Retrieved 2013-09-26. 
42. ↑ "The History of Birkenhead Park". Retrieved 2007-09-13.