Pronouns are used less frequently in the Japanese language than in many other languages,[1] mainly because there is no grammatical requirement to include the subject in a sentence. So, pronouns can seldomly be translated from English to Japanese on a one-on-one basis.
The common, English pronouns, such as "I", "you", and "they", have no other meanings. However, most Japanese pronouns have other meanings. For example, of two pronouns that mean "I", (watashi) also means "private" or "personal"; and 僕 (boku) also means "manservant".
The words that Japanese speakers use to refer to other people are part of the encompassing system of honorific speech and should be understood within that context. The choice of pronoun will depend upon the speaker's social status (as compared to the listener's), as well as the subject(s) and the object(s) of the sentence.
The first-person pronouns (e.g. watashi, 私) and second-person pronouns (e.g. anata, 貴方) are used in formal contexts. In many sentences, pronouns that mean "I" and "you" are omitted in Japanese. Personal pronouns can be omitted when it is clear who the speaker is talking about.[2]
When it is required to state the topic of the sentence for clarity, the particle wa (は) is used, but it is not required when the topic can be inferred from context. Also, there are frequently used verbs that can indicate the subject of the sentence in certain contexts: for example, kureru (くれる) means "give" in the sense that "somebody gives something to me or to somebody very close to me." Ageru (あげる) also means "give", but in the sense that "someone gives something to someone other than me." In sentences comprising a single adjective (often those ending in -shii), it is often assumed that the speaker is the subject. For example, the adjective sabishii (寂しい) can represent a complete sentence that means "I am lonely."
Thus, the first-person pronoun is usually only used when the speaker wants to put a special stress on the fact that he is referring to himself, or if it is necessary to make it clear. In some contexts, it may be considered uncouth to refer to the listener (second person) by a pronoun. If it is required to state the second person, the listener's surname, suffixed with -san or some other title (like "customer", "teacher", or "boss"), is generally used.
Gender differences in spoken Japanese also create another challenge as men and women use different pronouns to refer to themselves. Social standing also determines how a person refers to him- or herself, as well as how a person refers to the person he or she is talking to.
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The list is incomplete, as there are numerous, Japanese pronoun forms, which vary by region and dialect. This is a list of the most commonly used forms. Note that "it" has no direct equivalent in Japanese.[2] Note, also, that Japanese doesn't generally inflect by case, so, I is equivalent to me.
| Romaji | Hiragana | Kanji | Level of speech | Gender | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
– me – |
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| watashi | わたし | 私 | formal | both | Also わて wate in the Kansai dialect. In formal or polite contexts, this is gender neutral, but, when used in informal or casual contexts, it is usually perceived as feminine. |
| watakushi | わたくし | 私 | very formal | both | The most formal polite form.[3] |
| ware | われ | 我 | very formal | both | |
| waga | わが | 我が | very formal | both | Means "my" or "our". Used in speeches and formalities; 我が社 waga-sha (our company) or 我が国 waga-kuni (our country). |
| ore | おれ | 俺 | informal | males | Meaning "I". Frequently used by men.[4] It can be seen as rude depending on the context. Establishes a sense of masculinity. Emphasizes one's own status when used with peers and with those who are younger or who have less status. Among close friends or family, its use is a sign of familiarity rather than of masculinity or of superiority. Also おい oi in the Kyushu dialect. |
| boku | ぼく | 僕 | informal | males[3][5] | Also means "I". Used when casually giving deference; "servant" uses the same kanji. (僕 shimobe), especially a male one, from a Sino-Japanese word. Can also be used toward children. (English equivalent – "kid" or "squirt".) |
| washi | わし | 儂 | males | Colloquial. Often used in western dialects and fictional settings to stereotypically represent old male characters. | |
| atai | あたい | very informal | females, rarely males (girlish) | Slang version of あたし atashi.[3] | |
| atashi | あたし | informal | females, rarely males (girlish) | Often considered cute.[3] Rarely used in written language, but common in conversation, especially among younger women. | |
| atakushi | あたくし | informal | females | ||
| uchi | うち | 家, 内 | informal | mostly young girls | Means "one's own". Often used in the Kansai and Kyūshū dialects. Uses the same kanji as "house" (家 uchi). |
| (own name) | informal | both | Used by small children and young women, considered cute. | ||
| oira | おいら | informal | both | Similar to 俺, but more casual. May give off sense of more country bumpkin. | |
| ora | おら | both | Dialect in Kanto and further north. Gives off sense of country bumpkin. Used among children influenced by main characters in Dragon Ball and Crayon Shin-chan. | ||
– you (singular) – |
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| (name and honorific) | formality depends on the honorific used | both | |||
| anata | あなた | 貴方, 貴男, 貴女 | formal/informal | both | The kanji is rarely used. It is not used as much, since, when speaking to someone directly, the name of the addressee is better.[2][4] Commonly used by women to address their husband or lover, in a way roughly equivalent to the English "dear". |
| anta | あんた | informal | both | Version of あなた anata.[3] Similar to omae. Often expresses contempt or familiar towards a person. Generally seen as rude or uneducated. | |
| otaku | おたく | お宅, 御宅 | formal, polite | both | A polite way of saying "your house", also used as a pronoun to address a person with slight sense of distance. Otaku/otakku/otaki/otakki turned into a slang term referring to a type of geek/obsessive hobbyist, as they often addressed each other as otaku. |
| omae | おまえ | お前 | very informal | both | Used by men with more frequency,[4] but also used by women. Expresses contempt/anger, the speaker's higher status or age, or a very casual relationship among peers. Used with おれ ore.[4] Should never be said to elders. |
| temee, temae | てめえ, てまえ |
手前 | rude and confrontational[3] | mainly males | Temee, a version of temae, is more rude. Used when the speaker is very angry. |
| kisama | きさま | 貴様 | extremely hostile and rude[3] | mainly males | Historically very formal, but has developed in an ironic sense to show the speaker's extreme hostility / outrage towards the addressee. |
| kimi | きみ | 君 | informal | both | The kanji means "lord" (archaic). Generally used with 僕 boku.[4] The same kanji is used to write -kun.[6] It is informal to subordinates; can also be affectionate; formerly very polite. Sometimes rude or assuming when used with superiors, elders or strangers.[4] |
| kika | きか | 貴下 | informal, to a younger person | both | |
| on-sha | おんしゃ | 御社 | formal, used to the listener representing your company | both | |
| ki-sha | きしゃ | 貴社 | formal, similar to onsha | both | |
– he / she – |
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| ano kata | あのかた | あの方 | very formal | both | Sometimes pronounced ano hou, but with the same kanji. |
| ano hito | あのひと | あの人 | formal/informal | both | Literally "that person". |
| yatsu | やつ | 奴 | informal | both | A thing (very informal), dude, guy. |
| koitsu, koyatsu | こいつ, こやつ | 此奴 | very informal, implies contempt | both | Denotes a person or material nearby the speaker. Analogous to "this one". |
| soitsu, soyatsu | そいつ, そやつ | 其奴 | very informal, implies contempt | both | Denotes a person or material nearby the listener. Analogous to "he/she", "it" or "this/that one". |
| aitsu, ayatsu | あいつ, あやつ | 彼奴 | very informal, implies contempt | both | Denotes a person or (less frequently) material far from both the speaker and the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one". |
– he – |
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| kare | かれ | 彼 | formal (neutral) and informal (boyfriend) | both | Can also mean "boyfriend". Formerly 彼氏 kareshi was its equivalent, but this now always means "boyfriend". |
– she – |
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| kanojo | かのじょ | 彼女 | formal (neutral) and informal (girlfriend) | both | 彼の ("that") 女("female"). Originally created as an equivalent to female pronouns in European languages. Can also mean "girlfriend".[7] |
– we (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below) – |
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| ware-ware | われわれ | 我々 | formal | both | Mostly used when speaking on behalf of a company or group. |
| hei-sha | へいしゃ | 弊社 | formal and humble, used when representing one's own company | both | Used when representing one's own company. From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "low company" or "humble company". |
| waga-sha | わがしゃ | 我が社 | formal, used when representing one's own company | both | |
– they (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below) – |
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| kare-ra | かれら | 彼等 | common in spoken Japanese and writing | both | |
| Romaji | Hiragana | Kanji | Meaning | Level of speech | Gender | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| asshi | あっし | I | males | From the feudal ages. | ||
| sessha | せっしゃ | 拙者 | I | males | Used by ninja and samurai during the feudal ages. From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "one who is clumsy". | |
| waga-hai | わがはい | 我が輩,吾輩 | I | both | Literally "my fellows; my class; my cohort", but used in a somewhat pompous manner as a first-person singular pronoun. | |
| soregashi | それがし | 某 | I | both | Ancient form of "watakushi". | |
| warawa | わらわ | 妾 | I | both | Ancient form of "watakushi". | |
| yo | よ | 余, 予 | I | males | Archaic first-person singular pronoun. | |
| chin | ちん | 朕 | I | males | Used only by the emperor, mostly before World War II. | |
| adakado | あだかど | 仇家人 | I | males | Used as a humble term, literally for one's house, but usually for the person | |
| onore | おのれ | 己 | I or you | males | The word onore, as well as the kanji used to transcribe it, literally means "oneself". It is humble when used as a first person pronoun and hostile when used as a second person pronoun. | |
| nanji | なんじ | 汝, less commonly also 爾 | you, often translated as "thou" | both | Spelled as なむち namuchi in the most ancient texts and later as なんち nanchi or なんぢ nanji. | |
| onushi | おぬし | 御主 | males | Used by ninja and samurai to talk to people of equal or lower rank. Literally means "master". | ||
| sonata | そなた | 其方 (rarely used) | thou | both | Originally a mesial deictic pronoun meaning "that side; that way; that direction"; used as a lightly respectful second person pronoun in medieval times, but now used when speaking to an inferior in a pompous and old-fashioned tone. |
Suffixes are added to pronouns to make them plural.
| Romaji | Hiragana | Kanji | Level of speech | Gender | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| tachi | たち | 達 | informal; examples:
|
both | Makes the pronoun plural; for example, watashi ("I") becomes watashi-tachi ("we"). Also can be attached to names to indicate that person and the group (s)he is with (Ryuichi-tachi = "Ryuichi and friends"). |
| kata, gata |
かた, がた |
方 | formal (ex. あなた方, anata-gata) | both | More polite than 達 tachi. |
| domo | ども | 共 | humble (ex. 私ども, watakushi-domo) | both | Casts some aspersion on the mentioned group, so it can be rude |
| ra | ら | 等 | informal (ex. 彼ら, karera. 俺ら, ore-ra. 奴ら, yatsu-ra. あいつら, aitsu-ra) | both | Used with informal pronouns. Frequently used with hostile words. Sometimes used for light humble as domo (ex. 私ら, watashi-ra) |
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